tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-79363816277788553492024-02-07T11:21:35.510-08:00United Methodist Advanced ClassPublished by The Right Reverend Walter the Splendid of St. Winifred by WinchelseaDuke Eversmeyerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12979421184987312497noreply@blogger.comBlogger43125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7936381627778855349.post-54584440000843083562009-12-14T06:21:00.000-08:002009-12-14T06:22:43.166-08:00Lessons to Live ByThis is almost as good as the Old Testament book of Proverbs and a quicker read:<br /><br /><br />1. Life isn't fair, but it's still good.<br /><br /><br />2. When in doubt, just take the next small step.<br /><br /><br />3. Life is too short to waste time hating anyone...<br /><br /><br />4. Your job won't take care of you when you are sick. Your friends and <br />parents will. Stay in touch.<br /><br /><br />5. Pay off your credit cards every month.<br /><br /><br />6. You don't have to win every argument. Agree to disagree.<br /><br /><br />7. Cry with someone. It's more healing than crying alone.<br /><br /><br />8. It's OK to get angry with God. He can take it.<br /><br /><br />9. Save for retirement starting with your first paycheck.<br /><br /><br />10. When it comes to chocolate, resistance is futile.<br /><br /><br />11. Make peace with your past so it won't screw up the present.<br /><br /><br />12. It's OK to let your children see you cry.<br /><br /><br />13. Don't compare your life to others. You have no idea what their <br />journey is all about.<br /><br /><br />14. If a relationship has to be a secret, you shouldn't be in it.<br /><br /><br />15. Everything can change in the blink of an eye. But don't worry; God <br />never blinks.<br /><br /><br />16. Take a deep breath. It calms the mind.<br /><br /><br />17. Get rid of anything that isn't useful, beautiful or joyful .<br /><br /><br />18. Whatever doesn't kill you really does make you stronger.<br /><br /><br />19. It's never too late to have a happy childhood. But the second one is <br />up to you and no one else.<br /><br /><br />20. When it comes to going after what you love in life, don't take no for <br />an answer.<br /><br /><br />21. Burn the candles, use the nice sheets, wear the fancy lingerie. Don't <br />save it for a special occasion.<br /> Today is special.<br /><br /><br />22. Over prepare, then go with the flow.<br /><br /><br />23. Be eccentric now. Don't wait for old age to wear purple.<br /><br /><br />24. The most important sex organ is the brain.<br /><br /><br />25. No one is in charge of your happiness but you.<br /><br /><br />26. Frame every so-called disaster with these words. 'In five years, <br />will this matter?'<br /><br /><br />27. Always choose life.<br /><br /><br />28. Forgive everyone everything.<br /><br /><br />29. What other people think of you is none of your business.<br /><br /><br />30. Time heals almost everything. Give time time.<br /><br /><br />31. However good or bad a situation is, it will change.<br /><br /><br />32. Don't take yourself so seriously. No one else does.<br /><br /><br />33. Believe in miracles.<br /><br /><br />34. God loves you because of who God is, not because of anything you did <br />or didn't do.<br /><br /><br />35. Don't audit life. Show up and make the most of it now.<br /><br /><br />36. Growing old beats the alternative -- dying young.<br /><br /><br />37. Your children get only one childhood.<br /><br /><br />38. All that truly matters in the end is that you loved.<br /><br /><br />39. Get outside every day. Miracles are waiting everywhere.<br /><br /><br />40. If we all threw our problems in a pile and saw everyone else's, we'd <br />grab ours back.<br /><br /><br />41. Envy is a waste of time. You already have all you need.<br /><br /><br />42. The best is yet to come.<br /><br /><br />43. No matter how you feel, get up, dress up and show up.<br /><br /><br />44. Yield.<br /><br /><br />45. Life isn't tied with a bow, but it's still a gift."<br /><br /><br />Its estimated 93% won't forward this. If you are one of the 7% who will, <br />forward this with the title '7%'.Duke Eversmeyerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12979421184987312497noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7936381627778855349.post-86900775115353729172009-04-28T07:09:00.000-07:002009-04-28T08:03:59.927-07:00From the New Yorker<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiy2JAvFD-i3Vrg2K6f2F8exL92kwjqzYjXlNxKghVJma8uIwkr1GZ-nzmGU9yl1eo0DVlj14875IszVZqiWaavg0E187ewbu_mq-LnIoYDiYwjsJ3O9hVNJDIB5vfxajAkWH14L5df2Sge/s1600-h/Tree+of+knowledge.jpg"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 328px; height: 400px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiy2JAvFD-i3Vrg2K6f2F8exL92kwjqzYjXlNxKghVJma8uIwkr1GZ-nzmGU9yl1eo0DVlj14875IszVZqiWaavg0E187ewbu_mq-LnIoYDiYwjsJ3O9hVNJDIB5vfxajAkWH14L5df2Sge/s400/Tree+of+knowledge.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5329747751646579554" /></a>Duke Eversmeyerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12979421184987312497noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7936381627778855349.post-78296015578006562722009-01-05T09:33:00.000-08:002009-01-05T11:08:25.363-08:00Words of Wisdom from George Carlin<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh3cgQgr-_Qrh10m1Gx6JAm6V4Ad_QpiEugECSz5eMl42zobdhGi8UGhuJB_Re391e7VvE4VpZA0Rq_qfKlwSAjW-haml8KDzr8ncMnJDq5dVG-6Rzo2wRPPiP9_S2E9usZ4ui-lBU4lt96/s1600-h/George+Carlin.bmp"><img style="float:right; margin:0 0 10px 10px;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 320px; height: 400px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh3cgQgr-_Qrh10m1Gx6JAm6V4Ad_QpiEugECSz5eMl42zobdhGi8UGhuJB_Re391e7VvE4VpZA0Rq_qfKlwSAjW-haml8KDzr8ncMnJDq5dVG-6Rzo2wRPPiP9_S2E9usZ4ui-lBU4lt96/s400/George+Carlin.bmp" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5287864942651091618" /></a><br /><br /><br />Religious people do not have a monopoly on wisdom. One of the greatest stand up comics of the second half of the 20th century had this to say before he died. It is worthy of our attention.<br /> Dukester<br /><br />The paradox of our time in history is that we have taller buildings but <br /> shorter tempers, wider freeways, but narrower viewpoints. We spend more, but have less, we buy more, but enjoy less. We have bigger houses and smaller families, more conveniences, but less time. We have more degrees but less sense, more knowledge, but less judgment, more experts, yet more problems, more medicine, but less wellness. <br /><br /> <br /><br /> We drink too much, smoke too much, spend too recklessly, laugh too little, drive too fast, get too angry, stay up too late, get up too tired, read too little, watch TV too much, and pray too seldom. We have multiplied our possessions, but reduced our values. We talk too much, love too seldom, and hate too often. <br /><br /> <br /><br /> We've learned how to make a living, but not a life. We've added years to life not life to years. We've been all the way to the moon and back, but have trouble crossing the street to meet a new neighbor. We conquered outer space but not inner space. We've done larger things, but not better things. <br /><br /> <br /><br /> We've cleaned up the air, but polluted the soul. We've conquered the atom, but not our prejudice. We write more, but learn less. We plan more, but accomplish less. We've learned to rush, but not to wait. We build more computers to hold more information, to produce more copies than ever, but we communicate less and less. <br /><br /> <br /><br /> These are the times of fast foods and slow digestion, big men and small character, steep profits and shallow relationships. These are the days of two incomes but more divorce, fancier houses, but broken homes. <br /><br /> <br /><br /> These are days of quick trips, disposable diapers, throwaway morality, one night stands, overweight bodies, and pills that do everything from cheer, to quiet, to kill. It is a time when there is much in the showroom window and nothing in the stockroom. A time when technology can bring this letter to you, and a time when you can choose either to share this insight, or to just hit delete. <br /><br /> <br /><br /> Remember, spend some time with your loved ones, because they are not going to be around forever. Remember, say a kind word to someone who looks up to you in awe, because that little person soon will grow up and leave your side. Remember, to give a warm hug to the one next to you, because that is the only treasure you can give with your heart and it doesn't cost a cent. <br /><br /> <br /><br /> Remember, to say, "I love you" to your partner and your loved ones, but most of all mean it. A kiss and an embrace will mend hurt when it comes from deep inside of you. Remember to hold hands and cherish the moment for someday that person will not be there again. Give time to love, give time to speak, and give time to share the precious thoughts in your mind. <br /><br /><br /><br /> <br /><br /> HOW TO STAY YOUNG<br /><br /> 1. Throw out nonessential numbers. This includes age, weight and <br /> height. Let the doctor worry about them. That is why you pay him/her. <br /> 2. Keep only cheerful friends. The grouches pull you down. <br /> 3. Keep learning. Learn more about the computer, crafts, gardening, whatever. Never let the brain idle. " An idle mind is the devil's workshop." And the devil's name is Alzheimer's. <br /> 4. Enjoy the simple things. <br /> 5. Laugh often, long and loud. Laugh until you gasp for breath. <br /> 6. The tears happen. Endure, grieve, and move on. The only person who is with us our entire life, is ourselves. Be ALIVE while you are alive. <br /> 7. Surround yourself with what you love, whether it's family, pets, <br /> keepsakes, music, plants, hobbies, whatever. Your home is your refuge. <br /> 8. Cherish your health: If it is good, preserve it. If it is unstable, improve it. If it is beyond what you can improve, get help. <br /> 9. Don't take guilt trips. Take a trip to the mall, to the next county, <br /> to a foreign country, but NOT to where the guilt is. <br /> 10. Tell the people you love that you love them, at every opportunity. <br /> AND ALWAYS REMEMBER: <br /><br /> <br /><br /> Life is not measured by the number of breaths we take, but by the <br /> moments that take our breath away. <br /><br /> <br /><br /><br /><br /> -George CarlinDuke Eversmeyerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12979421184987312497noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7936381627778855349.post-87256467615954306622008-09-29T17:58:00.000-07:002008-09-29T18:11:55.562-07:00Week 4 Readings from the TanakhBereshit 11<br />26 And Terah lived seventy years, and begot Abram, Nahor, and Haran.<br /><br />27 Now these are the generations of Terah. Terah begot Abram, Nahor, and Haran; and Haran begot Lot.<br /><br />28 And Haran died in the presence of his father Terah in the land of his nativity, in Ur of the Chaldees.<br /><br />29 And Abram and Nahor took them wives: the name of Abram's wife was Sarai; and the name of Nahor's wife, Milcah, the daughter of Haran, the father of Milcah, and the father of Iscah.<br /><br />30 And Sarai was barren; she had no child.<br /><br />31 And Terah took Abram his son, and Lot the son of Haran, his son's son, and Sarai his daughter-in-law, his son Abram's wife; and they went forth with them from Ur of the Chaldees, to go into the land of Canaan; and they came unto Haran, and dwelt there.<br /><br />32 And the days of Terah were two hundred and five years; and Terah died in Haran.<br /><br />Chapter 12<br /><br />--------------------------------------------------------------------------------<br /><br />1 Now HaShem said unto Abram: 'Get thee out of thy country, and from thy kindred, and from thy father's house, unto the land that I will show thee.<br /><br />2 And I will make of thee a great nation, and I will bless thee, and make thy name great; and be thou a blessing.<br /><br />3 And I will bless them that bless thee, and him that curseth thee will I curse; and in thee shall all the families of the earth be blessed.'<br /><br />4 So Abram went, as HaShem had spoken unto him; and Lot went with him; and Abram was seventy and five years old when he departed out of Haran.<br /><br />5 And Abram took Sarai his wife, and Lot his brother's son, and all their substance that they had gathered, and the souls that they had gotten in Haran; and they went forth to go into the land of Canaan; and into the land of Canaan they came.<br /><br />6 And Abram passed through the land unto the place of Shechem, unto the terebinth of Moreh. And the Canaanite was then in the land.<br /><br />7 And HaShem appeared unto Abram, and said: 'Unto thy seed will I give this land'; and he builded there an altar unto HaShem, who appeared unto him.<br /><br />8 And he removed from thence unto the mountain on the east of Beth-el, and pitched his tent, having Beth-el on the west, and Ai on the east; and he builded there an altar unto HaShem, and called upon the name of HaShem.<br /><br />9 And Abram journeyed, going on still toward the South.<br /><br />10 And there was a famine in the land; and Abram went down into Egypt to sojourn there; for the famine was sore in the land.<br /><br />11 And it came to pass, when he was come near to enter into Egypt, that he said unto Sarai his wife: 'Behold now, I know that thou art a fair woman to look upon.<br /><br />12 And it will come to pass, when the Egyptians shall see thee, that they will say: This is his wife; and they will kill me, but thee they will keep alive.<br /><br />13 Say, I pray thee, thou art my sister; that it may be well with me for thy sake, and that my soul may live because of thee.'<br /><br />14 And it came to pass, that, when Abram was come into Egypt, the Egyptians beheld the woman that she was very fair.<br /><br />15 And the princes of Pharaoh saw her, and praised her to Pharaoh; and the woman was taken into Pharaoh's house.<br /><br />16 And he dealt well with Abram for her sake; and he had sheep, and oxen, and he-asses, and men-servants, and maid-servants, and she-asses, and camels.<br /><br />17 And HaShem plagued Pharaoh and his house with great plagues because of Sarai Abram's wife.<br /><br />18 And Pharaoh called Abram, and said: 'What is this that thou hast done unto me? why didst thou not tell me that she was thy wife?<br /><br />19 Why saidst thou: She is my sister? so that I took her to be my wife; now therefore behold thy wife, take her, and go thy way.'<br /><br />20 And Pharaoh gave men charge concerning him; and they brought him on the way, and his wife, and all that he had.<br /><br />Chapter 13<br /><br />--------------------------------------------------------------------------------<br /><br />1 And Abram went up out of Egypt, he, and his wife, and all that he had, and Lot with him, into the South.<br /><br />2 And Abram was very rich in cattle, in silver, and in gold.<br /><br />3 And he went on his journeys from the South even to Beth-el, unto the place where his tent had been at the beginning, between Beth-el and Ai;<br /><br />4 unto the place of the altar, which he had made there at the first; and Abram called there on the name of HaShem.<br /><br />5 And Lot also, who went with Abram, had flocks, and herds, and tents.<br /><br />6 And the land was not able to bear them, that they might dwell together; for their substance was great, so that they could not dwell together.<br /><br />7 And there was a strife between the herdmen of Abram's cattle and the herdmen of Lot's cattle. And the Canaanite and the Perizzite dwelt then in the land.<br /><br />8 And Abram said unto Lot: 'Let there be no strife, I pray thee, between me and thee, and between my herdmen and thy herdmen; for we are brethren.<br /><br />9 Is not the whole land before thee? separate thyself, I pray thee, from me; if thou wilt take the left hand, then I will go to the right; or if thou take the right hand, then I will go to the left.'<br /><br />10 And Lot lifted up his eyes, and beheld all the plain of the Jordan, that it was well watered every where, before HaShem destroyed Sodom and Gomorrah, like the garden of HaShem, like the land of Egypt, as thou goest unto Zoar.<br /><br />11 So Lot chose him all the plain of the Jordan; and Lot journeyed east; and they separated themselves the one from the other.<br /><br />12 Abram dwelt in the land of Canaan, and Lot dwelt in the cities of the Plain, and moved his tent as far as Sodom.<br /><br />13 Now the men of Sodom were wicked and sinners against HaShem exceedingly.<br /><br />14 And HaShem said unto Abram, after that Lot was separated from him: 'Lift up now thine eyes, and look from the place where thou art, northward and southward and eastward and westward;<br /><br />15 for all the land which thou seest, to thee will I give it, and to thy seed for ever.<br /><br />16 And I will make thy seed as the dust of the earth; so that if a man can number the dust of the earth, then shall thy seed also be numbered.<br /><br />17 Arise, walk through the land in the length of it and in the breadth of it; for unto thee will I give it.'<br /><br />18 And Abram moved his tent, and came and dwelt by the terebinths of Mamre, which are in Hebron, and built there an altar unto HaShem.<br /><br />Chapter 14<br /><br />--------------------------------------------------------------------------------<br /><br />1 And it came to pass in the days of Amraphel king of Shinar, Arioch king of Ellasar, Chedorlaomer king of Elam, and Tidal king of Goiim,<br /><br />2 that they made war with Bera king of Sodom, and with Birsha king of Gomorrah, Shinab king of Admah, and Shemeber king of Zeboiim, and the king of Bela--the same is Zoar.<br /><br />3 All these came as allies unto the vale of Siddim--the same is the Salt Sea.<br /><br />4 Twelve years they served Chedorlaomer, and in the thirteenth year they rebelled.<br /><br />5 And in the fourteenth year came Chedorlaomer and the kings that were with him, and smote the Rephaim in Ashteroth-karnaim, and the Zuzim in Ham, and the Emim in Shaveh-kiriathaim,<br /><br />6 and the Horites in their mount Seir, unto El-paran, which is by the wilderness.<br /><br />7 And they turned back, and came to En-mishpat--the same is Kadesh--and smote all the country of the Amalekites, and also the Amorites, that dwelt in Hazazon-tamar.<br /><br />8 And there went out the king of Sodom, and the king of Gomorrah, and the king of Admah, and the king of Zeboiim, and the king of Bela--the same is Zoar; and they set the battle in array against them in the vale of Siddim;<br /><br />9 against Chedorlaomer king of Elam, and Tidal king of Goiim, and Amraphel king of Shinar, and Arioch king of Ellasar; four kings against the five.<br /><br />10 Now the vale of Siddim was full of slime pits; and the kings of Sodom and Gomorrah fled, and they fell there, and they that remained fled to the mountain.<br /><br />11 And they took all the goods of Sodom and Gomorrah, and all their victuals, and went their way.<br /><br />12 And they took Lot, Abram's brother's son, who dwelt in Sodom, and his goods, and departed.<br /><br />13 And there came one that had escaped, and told Abram the Hebrew--now he dwelt by the terebinths of Mamre the Amorite, brother of Eshcol, and brother of Aner; and these were confederate with Abram.<br /><br />14 And when Abram heard that his brother was taken captive, he led forth his trained men, born in his house, three hundred and eighteen, and pursued as far as Dan.<br /><br />15 And he divided himself against them by night, he and his servants, and smote them, and pursued them unto Hobah, which is on the left hand of Damascus.<br /><br />16 And he brought back all the goods, and also brought back his brother Lot, and his goods, and the women also, and the people.<br /><br />17 And the king of Sodom went out to meet him, after his return from the slaughter of Chedorlaomer and the kings that were with him, at the vale of Shaveh--the same is the King's Vale.<br /><br />18 And Melchizedek king of Salem brought forth bread and wine; and he was priest of G-d the Most High.<br /><br />19 And he blessed him, and said: 'Blessed be Abram of G-d Most High, Maker of heaven and earth;<br /><br />20 and blessed be G-d the Most High, who hath delivered thine enemies into thy hand.' And he gave him a tenth of all.<br /><br />21 And the king of Sodom said unto Abram: 'Give me the persons, and take the goods to thyself.'<br /><br />22 And Abram said to the king of Sodom: 'I have lifted up my hand unto HaShem, G-d Most High, Maker of heaven and earth,<br /><br />23 that I will not take a thread nor a shoe-latchet nor aught that is thine, lest thou shouldest say: I have made Abram rich;<br /><br />24 save only that which the young men have eaten, and the portion of the men which went with me, Aner, Eshcol, and Mamre, let them take their portion.'<br /><br />Chapter 15<br /><br />--------------------------------------------------------------------------------<br /><br />1 After these things the word of HaShem came unto Abram in a vision, saying: 'Fear not, Abram, I am thy shield, thy reward shall be exceeding great.'<br /><br />2 And Abram said: 'O L-rd GOD, what wilt Thou give me, seeing I go hence childless, and he that shall be possessor of my house is Eliezer of Damascus?'<br /><br />3 And Abram said: 'Behold, to me Thou hast given no seed, and, lo, one born in my house is to be mine heir.'<br /><br />4 And, behold, the word of HaShem came unto him, saying: 'This man shall not be thine heir; but he that shall come forth out of thine own bowels shall be thine heir.'<br /><br />5 And He brought him forth abroad, and said: 'Look now toward heaven, and count the stars, if thou be able to count them'; and He said unto him: 'So shall thy seed be.'<br /><br />6 And he believed in HaShem; and He counted it to him for righteousness.<br /><br />7 And He said unto him: 'I am HaShem that brought thee out of Ur of the Chaldees, to give thee this land to inherit it.'<br /><br />8 And he said: 'O L-rd GOD, whereby shall I know that I shall inherit it?'<br /><br />9 And He said unto him: 'Take Me a heifer of three years old, and a she-goat of three years old, and a ram of three years old, and a turtle-dove, and a young pigeon.'<br /><br />10 And he took him all these, and divided them in the midst, and laid each half over against the other; but the birds divided he not.<br /><br />11 And the birds of prey came down upon the carcasses, and Abram drove them away.<br /><br />12 And it came to pass, that, when the sun was going down, a deep sleep fell upon Abram; and, lo, a dread, even a great darkness, fell upon him.<br /><br />13 And He said unto Abram: 'Know of a surety that thy seed shall be a stranger in a land that is not theirs, and shall serve them; and they shall afflict them four hundred years;<br /><br />14 and also that nation, whom they shall serve, will I judge; and afterward shall they come out with great substance.<br /><br />15 But thou shalt go to thy fathers in peace; thou shalt be buried in a good old age.<br /><br />16 And in the fourth generation they shall come back hither; for the iniquity of the Amorite is not yet full.'<br /><br />17 And it came to pass, that, when the sun went down, and there was thick darkness, behold a smoking furnace, and a flaming torch that passed between these pieces.<br /><br />18 In that day HaShem made a covenant with Abram, saying: 'Unto thy seed have I given this land, from the river of Egypt unto the great river, the river Euphrates;<br /><br />19 the Kenite, and the Kenizzite, and the Kadmonite,<br /><br />20 and the Hittite, and the Perizzite, and the Rephaim,<br /><br />21 and the Amorite, and the Canaanite, and the Girgashite, and the Jebusite.'<br /><br />Chapter 16<br /><br />--------------------------------------------------------------------------------<br /><br />1 Now Sarai Abram's wife bore him no children; and she had a handmaid, an Egyptian, whose name was Hagar.<br /><br />2 And Sarai said unto Abram: 'Behold now, HaShem hath restrained me from bearing; go in, I pray thee, unto my handmaid; it may be that I shall be builded up through her.' And Abram hearkened to the voice of Sarai.<br /><br />3 And Sarai Abram's wife took Hagar the Egyptian, her handmaid, after Abram had dwelt ten years in the land of Canaan, and gave her to Abram her husband to be his wife.<br /><br />4 And he went in unto Hagar, and she conceived; and when she saw that she had conceived, her mistress was despised in her eyes.<br /><br />5 And Sarai said unto Abram: 'My wrong be upon thee: I gave my handmaid into thy bosom; and when she saw that she had conceived, I was despised in her eyes: HaShem judge between me and thee.'<br /><br />6 But Abram said unto Sarai: 'Behold, thy maid is in thy hand; do to her that which is good in thine eyes.' And Sarai dealt harshly with her, and she fled from her face.<br /><br />7 And the angel of HaShem found her by a fountain of water in the wilderness, by the fountain in the way to Shur.<br /><br />8 And he said: 'Hagar, Sarai's handmaid, whence camest thou? and whither goest thou?' And she said: 'I flee from the face of my mistress Sarai.'<br /><br />9 And the angel of HaShem said unto her: 'Return to thy mistress, and submit thyself under her hands.'<br /><br />10 And the angel of HaShem said unto her: 'I will greatly multiply thy seed, that it shall not be numbered for multitude.<br /><br />11 And the angel of HaShem said unto her: 'Behold, thou art with child, and shalt bear a son; and thou shalt call his name Ishmael, because HaShem hath heard thy affliction.<br /><br />12 And he shall be a wild ass of a man: his hand shall be against every man, and every man's hand against him; and he shall dwell in the face of all his brethren.'<br /><br />13 And she called the name of HaShem that spoke unto her, Thou art a G-d of seeing; for she said: 'Have I even here seen Him that seeth Me?'<br /><br />14 Wherefore the well was called 'Beer-lahai-roi; behold, it is between Kadesh and Bered.<br /><br />15 And Hagar bore Abram a son; and Abram called the name of his son, whom Hagar bore, Ishmael.<br /><br />16 And Abram was fourscore and six years old, when Hagar bore Ishmael to Abram.<br /><br />Chapter 17<br /><br />--------------------------------------------------------------------------------<br /><br />1 And when Abram was ninety years old and nine, HaShem appeared to Abram, and said unto him: 'I am G-d Almighty; walk before Me, and be thou wholehearted.<br /><br />2 And I will make My covenant between Me and thee, and will multiply thee exceedingly.'<br /><br />3 And Abram fell on his face; and G-d talked with him, saying:<br /><br />4 'As for Me, behold, My covenant is with thee, and thou shalt be the father of a multitude of nations.<br /><br />5 Neither shall thy name any more be called Abram, but thy name shall be Abraham; for the father of a multitude of nations have I made thee.<br /><br />6 And I will make thee exceeding fruitful, and I will make nations of thee, and kings shall come out of thee.<br /><br />7 And I will establish My covenant between Me and thee and thy seed after thee throughout their generations for an everlasting covenant, to be a G-d unto thee and to thy seed after thee.<br /><br />8 And I will give unto thee, and to thy seed after thee, the land of thy sojournings, all the land of Canaan, for an everlasting possession; and I will be their G-d.'<br /><br />9 And G-d said unto Abraham: 'And as for thee, thou shalt keep My covenant, thou, and thy seed after thee throughout their generations.<br /><br />10 This is My covenant, which ye shall keep, between Me and you and thy seed after thee: every male among you shall be circumcised.<br /><br />11 And ye shall be circumcised in the flesh of your foreskin; and it shall be a token of a covenant betwixt Me and you.<br /><br />12 And he that is eight days old shall be circumcised among you, every male throughout your generations, he that is born in the house, or bought with money of any foreigner, that is not of thy seed.<br /><br />13 He that is born in thy house, and he that is bought with thy money, must needs be circumcised; and My covenant shall be in your flesh for an everlasting covenant.<br /><br />14 And the uncircumcised male who is not circumcised in the flesh of his foreskin, that soul shall be cut off from his people; he hath broken My covenant.'<br /><br />15 And G-d said unto Abraham: 'As for Sarai thy wife, thou shalt not call her name Sarai, but Sarah shall her name be.<br /><br />16 And I will bless her, and moreover I will give thee a son of her; yea, I will bless her, and she shall be a mother of nations; kings of peoples shall be of her.'<br /><br />17 Then Abraham fell upon his face, and laughed, and said in his heart: 'Shall a child be born unto him that is a hundred years old? and shall Sarah, that is ninety years old, bear?'<br /><br />18 And Abraham said unto G-d: 'Oh that Ishmael might live before Thee!'<br /><br />19 And G-d said: ''Nay, but Sarah thy wife shall bear thee a son; and thou shalt call his name Isaac; and I will establish My covenant with him for an everlasting covenant for his seed after him.<br /><br />20 And as for Ishmael, I have heard thee; behold, I have blessed him, and will make him fruitful, and will multiply him exceedingly; twelve princes shall he beget, and I will make him a great nation.<br /><br />21 But My covenant will I establish with Isaac, whom Sarah shall bear unto thee at this set time in the next year.'<br /><br />22 And He left off talking with him, and G-d went up from Abraham.<br /><br />23 And Abraham took Ishmael his son, and all that were born in his house, and all that were bought with his money, every male among the men of Abraham's house, and circumcised the flesh of their foreskin in the selfsame day, as G-d had said unto him.<br /><br />24 And Abraham was ninety years old and nine, when he was circumcised in the flesh of his foreskin.<br /><br />25 And Ishmael his son was thirteen years old, when he was circumcised in the flesh of his foreskin.<br /><br />26 In the selfsame day was Abraham circumcised, and Ishmael his son.<br /><br />27 And all the men of his house, those born in the house, and those bought with money of a foreigner, were circumcised with him.<br /><br />Chapter 18<br /><br />--------------------------------------------------------------------------------<br /><br />1 And HaShem appeared unto him by the terebinths of Mamre, as he sat in the tent door in the heat of the day;<br /><br />2 and he lifted up his eyes and looked, and, lo, three men stood over against him; and when he saw them, he ran to meet them from the tent door, and bowed down to the earth,<br /><br />3 and said: 'My lord, if now I have found favour in thy sight, pass not away, I pray thee, from thy servant.<br /><br />4 Let now a little water be fetched, and wash your feet, and recline yourselves under the tree.<br /><br />5 And I will fetch a morsel of bread, and stay ye your heart; after that ye shall pass on; forasmuch as ye are come to your servant.' And they said: 'So do, as thou hast said.'<br /><br />6 And Abraham hastened into the tent unto Sarah, and said: 'Make ready quickly three measures of fine meal, knead it, and make cakes.'<br /><br />7 And Abraham ran unto the herd, and fetched a calf tender and good, and gave it unto the servant; and he hastened to dress it.<br /><br />8 And he took curd, and milk, and the calf which he had dressed, and set it before them; and he stood by them under the tree, and they did eat.<br /><br />9 And they said unto him: 'Where is Sarah thy wife?' And he said: 'Behold, in the tent.'<br /><br />10 And He said: 'I will certainly return unto thee when the season cometh round; and, lo, Sarah thy wife shall have a son.' And Sarah heard in the tent door, which was behind him.--<br /><br />11 Now Abraham and Sarah were old, and well stricken in age; it had ceased to be with Sarah after the manner of women.--<br /><br />12 And Sarah laughed within herself, saying: 'After I am waxed old shall I have pleasure, my lord being old also?'<br /><br />13 And HaShem said unto Abraham: 'Wherefore did Sarah laugh, saying: Shall I of a surety bear a child, who am old?<br /><br />14 Is any thing too hard for HaShem. At the set time I will return unto thee, when the season cometh round, and Sarah shall have a son.'<br /><br />15 Then Sarah denied, saying: 'I laughed not'; for she was afraid. And He said: 'Nay; but thou didst laugh.'<br /><br />16 And the men rose up from thence, and looked out toward Sodom; and Abraham went with them to bring them on the way.<br /><br />17 And HaShem said: 'Shall I hide from Abraham that which I am doing;<br /><br />18 seeing that Abraham shall surely become a great and mighty nation, and all the nations of the earth shall be blessed in him?<br /><br />19 For I have known him, to the end that he may command his children and his household after him, that they may keep the way of HaShem, to do righteousness and justice; to the end that HaShem may bring upon Abraham that which He hath spoken of him.'<br /><br />20 And HaShem said: 'Verily, the cry of Sodom and Gomorrah is great, and, verily, their sin is exceeding grievous.<br /><br />21 I will go down now, and see whether they have done altogether according to the cry of it, which is come unto Me; and if not, I will know.'<br /><br />22 And the men turned from thence, and went toward Sodom; but Abraham stood yet before HaShem.<br /><br />23 And Abraham drew near, and said: 'Wilt Thou indeed sweep away the righteous with the wicked?<br /><br />24 Peradventure there are fifty righteous within the city; wilt Thou indeed sweep away and not forgive the place for the fifty righteous that are therein?<br /><br />25 That be far from Thee to do after this manner, to slay the righteous with the wicked, that so the righteous should be as the wicked; that be far from Thee; shall not the judge of all the earth do justly?'<br /><br />26 And HaShem said: 'If I find in Sodom fifty righteous within the city, then I will forgive all the place for their sake.'<br /><br />27 And Abraham answered and said: 'Behold now, I have taken upon me to speak unto the L-rd, who am but dust and ashes.<br /><br />28 Peradventure there shall lack five of the fifty righteous; wilt Thou destroy all the city for lack of five?' And He said: 'I will not destroy it, if I find there forty and five.'<br /><br />29 And he spoke unto Him yet again, and said: 'Peradventure there shall be forty found there.' And He said: 'I will not do it for the forty's sake.'<br /><br />30 And he said: 'Oh, let not the L-rd be angry, and I will speak. Peradventure there shall thirty be found there.' And He said: 'I will not do it, if I find thirty there.'<br /><br />31 And he said: 'Behold now, I have taken upon me to speak unto the L-rd. Peradventure there shall be twenty found there.' And He said: 'I will not destroy it for the twenty's sake.'<br /><br />32 And he said: 'Oh, let not the L-rd be angry, and I will speak yet but this once. Peradventure ten shall be found there.' And He said: 'I will not destroy it for the ten's sake.'<br /><br />33 And HaShem went His way, as soon as He had left off speaking to Abraham; and Abraham returned unto his place.<br /><br />Chapter 19<br /><br />--------------------------------------------------------------------------------<br /><br />1 And the two angels came to Sodom at even; and Lot sat in the gate of Sodom; and Lot saw them, and rose up to meet them; and he fell down on his face to the earth;<br /><br />2 and he said: 'Behold now, my lords, turn aside, I pray you, into your servant's house, and tarry all night, and wash your feet, and ye shall rise up early, and go on your way.' And they said: 'Nay; but we will abide in the broad place all night.'<br /><br />3 And he urged them greatly; and they turned in unto him, and entered into his house; and he made them a feast, and did bake unleavened bread, and they did eat.<br /><br />4 But before they lay down, the men of the city, even the men of Sodom, compassed the house round, both young and old, all the people from every quarter.<br /><br />5 And they called unto Lot, and said unto him: 'Where are the men that came in to thee this night? bring them out unto us, that we may know them.'<br /><br />6 And Lot went out unto them to the door, and shut the door after him.<br /><br />7 And he said: 'I pray you, my brethren, do not so wickedly.<br /><br />8 Behold now, I have two daughters that have not known man; let me, I pray you, bring them out unto you, and do ye to them as is good in your eyes; only unto these men do nothing; forasmuch as they are come under the shadow of my roof.'<br /><br />9 And they said: 'Stand back.' And they said: 'This one fellow came in to sojourn, and he will needs play the judge; now will we deal worse with thee, than with them.' And they pressed sore upon the man, even Lot, and drew near to break the door.<br /><br />10 But the men put forth their hand, and brought Lot into the house to them, and the door they shut.<br /><br />11 And they smote the men that were at the door of the house with blindness, both small and great; so that they wearied themselves to find the door.<br /><br />12 And the men said unto Lot: 'Hast thou here any besides? son-in-law, and thy sons, and thy daughters, and whomsoever thou hast in the city; bring them out of the place;<br /><br />13 for we will destroy this place, because the cry of them is waxed great before HaShem; and HaShem hath sent us to destroy it.'<br /><br />14 And Lot went out, and spoke unto his sons-in-law, who married his daughters, and said: 'Up, get you out of this place; for HaShem will destroy the city.' But he seemed unto his sons-in-law as one that jested.<br /><br />15 And when the morning arose, then the angels hastened Lot, saying: 'Arise, take thy wife, and thy two daughters that are here; lest thou be swept away in the iniquity of the city.'<br /><br />16 But he lingered; and the men laid hold upon his hand, and upon the hand of his wife, and upon the hand of his two daughters; HaShem being merciful unto him. And they brought him forth, and set him without the city.<br /><br />17 And it came to pass, when they had brought them forth abroad, that he said: 'Escape for thy life; look not behind thee, neither stay thou in all the Plain; escape to the mountain, lest thou be swept away.'<br /><br />18 And Lot said unto them: 'Oh, not so, my lord;<br /><br />19 behold now, thy servant hath found grace in thy sight, and thou hast magnified thy mercy, which thou hast shown unto me in saving my life; and I cannot escape to the mountain, lest the evil overtake me, and I die.<br /><br />20 Behold now, this city is near to flee unto, and it is a little one; oh, let me escape thither--is it not a little one? --and my soul shall live.'<br /><br />21 And he said unto him: 'See, I have accepted thee concerning this thing also, that I will not overthrow the city of which thou hast spoken.<br /><br />22 Hasten thou, escape thither; for I cannot do any thing till thou be come thither.' --Therefore the name of the city was called Zoar.--<br /><br />23 The sun was risen upon the earth when Lot came unto Zoar.<br /><br />24 Then HaShem caused to rain upon Sodom and upon Gomorrah brimstone and fire from HaShem out of heaven;<br /><br />25 and He overthrow those cities, and all the Plain, and all the inhabitants of the cities, and that which grew upon the ground.<br /><br />26 But his wife looked back from behind him, and she became a pillar of salt.<br /><br />27 And Abraham got up early in the morning to the place where he had stood before HaShem.<br /><br />28 And he looked out toward Sodom and Gomorrah, and toward all the land of the Plain, and beheld, and, lo, the smoke of the land went up as the smoke of a furnace.<br /><br />29 And it came to pass, when G-d destroyed the cities of the Plain, that G-d remembered Abraham, and sent Lot out of the midst of the overthrow, when He overthrew the cities in which Lot dwelt.<br /><br />30 And Lot went up out of Zoar, and dwelt in the mountain, and his two daughters with him; for he feared to dwell in Zoar; and he dwelt in a cave, he and his two daughters.<br /><br />31 And the first-born said unto the younger: 'Our father is old, and there is not a man in the earth to come in unto us after the manner of all the earth.<br /><br />32 Come, let us make our father drink wine, and we will lie with him, that we may preserve seed of our father.'<br /><br />33 And they made their father drink wine that night. And the first-born went in, and lay with her father; and he knew not when she lay down, nor when she arose.<br /><br />34 And it came to pass on the morrow, that the first-born said unto the younger: 'Behold, I lay yesternight with my father. Let us make him drink wine this night also; and go thou in, and lie with him, that we may preserve seed of our father.'<br /><br />35 And they made their father drink wine that night also. And the younger arose, and lay with him; and he knew not when she lay down, nor when she arose.<br /><br />36 Thus were both the daughters of Lot with child by their father.<br /><br />37 And the first-born bore a son, and called his name Moab--the same is the father of the Moabites unto this day.<br /><br />38 And the younger, she also bore a son, and called his name Ben-ammi--the same is the father of the children of Ammon unto this day.<br /><br />Chapter 20<br /><br />--------------------------------------------------------------------------------<br /><br />1 And Abraham journeyed from thence toward the land of the South, and dwelt between Kadesh and Shur; and he sojourned in Gerar.<br /><br />2 And Abraham said of Sarah his wife: 'She is my sister.' And Abimelech king of Gerar sent, and took Sarah.<br /><br />3 But G-d came to Abimelech in a dream of the night, and said to him: 'Behold, thou shalt die, because of the woman whom thou hast taken; for she is a man's wife.'<br /><br />4 Now Abimelech had not come near her; and he said: 'L-rd, wilt Thou slay even a righteous nation?<br /><br />5 Said he not himself unto me: She is my sister? and she, even she herself said: He is my brother. In the simplicity of my heart and the innocency of my hands have I done this.'<br /><br />6 And G-d said unto him in the dream: 'Yea, I know that in the simplicity of thy heart thou hast done this, and I also withheld thee from sinning against Me. Therefore suffered I thee not to touch her.<br /><br />7 Now therefore restore the man's wife; for he is a prophet, and he shall pray for thee, and thou shalt live; and if thou restore her not, know thou that thou shalt surely die, thou, and all that are thine.'<br /><br />8 And Abimelech rose early in the morning, and called all his servants, and told all these things in their ears; and the men were sore afraid.<br /><br />9 Then Abimelech called Abraham, and said unto him: 'What hast thou done unto us? and wherein have I sinned against thee, that thou hast brought on me and on my kingdom a great sin? thou hast done deeds unto me that ought not to be done.'<br /><br />10 And Abimelech said unto Abraham: 'What sawest thou, that thou hast done this thing?'<br /><br />11 And Abraham said: 'Because I thought: Surely the fear of G-d is not in this place; and they will slay me for my wife's sake.<br /><br />12 And moreover she is indeed my sister, the daughter of my father, but not the daughter of my mother; and so she became my wife.<br /><br />13 And it came to pass, when G-d caused me to wander from my father's house, that I said unto her: This is thy kindness which thou shalt show unto me; at every place whither we shall come, say of me: He is my brother.'<br /><br />14 And Abimelech took sheep and oxen, and men-servants and women-servants, and gave them unto Abraham, and restored him Sarah his wife.<br /><br />15 And Abimelech said: 'Behold, my land is before thee: dwell where it pleaseth thee.'<br /><br />16 And unto Sarah he said: 'Behold, I have given thy brother a thousand pieces of silver; behold, it is for thee a covering of the eyes to all that are with thee; and before all men thou art righted.'<br /><br />17 And Abraham prayed unto G-d; and G-d healed Abimelech, and his wife, and his maid-servants; and they bore children.<br /><br />18 For HaShem had fast closed up all the wombs of the house of Abimelech, because of Sarah Abraham's wife.<br />Chapter 21<br /><br />--------------------------------------------------------------------------------<br /><br />1 And HaShem remembered Sarah as He had said, and HaShem did unto Sarah as He had spoken.<br /><br />2 And Sarah conceived, and bore Abraham a son in his old age, at the set time of which G-d had spoken to him.<br /><br />3 And Abraham called the name of his son that was born unto him, whom Sarah bore to him, Isaac.<br /><br />4 And Abraham circumcised his son Isaac when he was eight days old, as G-d had commanded him.<br /><br />5 And Abraham was a hundred years old, when his son Isaac was born unto him.<br /><br />6 And Sarah said: 'G-d hath made laughter for me; every one that heareth will laugh on account of me.'<br /><br />7 And she said: 'Who would have said unto Abraham, that Sarah should give children suck? for I have borne him a son in his old age.'<br /><br />8 And the child grew, and was weaned. And Abraham made a great feast on the day that Isaac was weaned.<br /><br />9 And Sarah saw the son of Hagar the Egyptian, whom she had borne unto Abraham, making sport.<br /><br />10 Wherefore she said unto Abraham: 'Cast out this bondwoman and her son; for the son of this bondwoman shall not be heir with my son, even with Isaac.'<br /><br />11 And the thing was very grievous in Abraham's sight on account of his son.<br /><br />12 And G-d said unto Abraham: 'Let it not be grievous in thy sight because of the lad, and because of thy bondwoman; in all that Sarah saith unto thee, hearken unto her voice; for in Isaac shall seed be called to thee.<br /><br />13 And also of the son of the bondwoman will I make a nation, because he is thy seed.'<br /><br />14 And Abraham arose up early in the morning, and took bread and a bottle of water, and gave it unto Hagar, putting it on her shoulder, and the child, and sent her away; and she departed, and strayed in the wilderness of Beer-sheba.<br /><br />15 And the water in the bottle was spent, and she cast the child under one of the shrubs.<br /><br />16 And she went, and sat her down over against him a good way off, as it were a bow-shot; for she said: 'Let me not look upon the death of the child.' And she sat over against him, and lifted up her voice, and wept.<br /><br />17 And G-d heard the voice of the lad; and the angel of G-d called to Hagar out of heaven, and said unto her: 'What aileth thee, Hagar? fear not; for G-d hath heard the voice of the lad where he is.<br /><br />18 Arise, lift up the lad, and hold him fast by thy hand; for I will make him a great nation.'<br /><br />19 And G-d opened her eyes, and she saw a well of water; and she went, and filled the bottle with water, and gave the lad drink.<br /><br />20 And G-d was with the lad, and he grew; and he dwelt in the wilderness, and became an archer.<br /><br />21 And he dwelt in the wilderness of Paran; and his mother took him a wife out of the land of Egypt.<br /><br />22 And it came to pass at that time, that Abimelech and Phicol the captain of his host spoke unto Abraham, saying: 'G-d is with thee in all that thou doest.<br /><br />23 Now therefore swear unto me here by G-d that thou wilt not deal falsely with me, nor with my son, nor with my son's son; but according to the kindness that I have done unto thee, thou shalt do unto me, and to the land wherein thou hast sojourned.'<br /><br />24 And Abraham said: 'I will swear.'<br /><br />25 And Abraham reproved Abimelech because of the well of water, which Abimelech's servants had violently taken away.<br /><br />26 And Abimelech said: 'I know not who hath done this thing; neither didst thou tell me, neither yet heard I of it, but to-day.'<br /><br />27 And Abraham took sheep and oxen, and gave them unto Abimelech; and they two made a covenant.<br /><br />28 And Abraham set seven ewe-lambs of the flock by themselves.<br /><br />29 And Abimelech said unto Abraham: 'What mean these seven ewe-lambs which thou hast set by themselves?'<br /><br />30 And he said: 'Verily, these seven ewe-lambs shalt thou take of my hand, that it may be a witness unto me, that I have digged this well.'<br /><br />31 Wherefore that place was called Beer-sheba; because there they swore both of them.<br /><br />32 So they made a covenant at Beer-sheba; and Abimelech rose up, and Phicol the captain of his host, and they returned into the land of the Philistines.<br /><br />33 And Abraham planted a tamarisk-tree in Beer-sheba, and called there on the name of HaShem, the Everlasting G-d.<br /><br />34 And Abraham sojourned in the land of the Philistines many days.Duke Eversmeyerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12979421184987312497noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7936381627778855349.post-44644982959542824122008-09-26T10:10:00.000-07:002008-09-26T10:11:49.641-07:00The Non-advanced Version of the Bible> <br />> <br />> A child was asked to write a book report on the entire Bible. <br />> Through the eyes of a child: The Bible in a Nutshell<br />> <br />> <br />> <br />> In the beginning, which occurred near the start, there was nothing but God, darkness, and some gas. <br />> The Bible says, The Lord thy God is one, but I think He must be a lot older than that. <br />> <br />> <br />> Anyway, God said, 'Give me a light!' and someone did. <br />> Then God made the world.<br />> <br />> He split the Adam and made Eve. Adam and Eve were naked,<br />> but they weren't embarrassed because mirrors hadn't been<br />> invented yet. <br />> <br />> <br />> Adam and Eve disobeyed God by eating one bad apple, so they were driven from the Garden of Eden.<br />> Not sure what they were driven in though, because they didn't have cars.<br />> <br />> Adam and Eve had a son, Cain, who hated his brother as long as he was Abel. <br />> <br />> <br />> <br />> Pretty soon all of the early people died off, except for Methuselah, who lived to be like a million or something.<br />> <br />> <br />> One of the next important people was Noah, who was a good guy, but one of his kids was kind of a Ham. Noah built a large boat and put his family and some animals on it. He asked some other people to join him, but they said they would have to take a rain check.<br />> <br />> <br />> After Noah came Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Jacob was more<br />> famous than his brother, Esau, because Esau sold Jacob his<br />> birthmark in exchange for some pot roast. Jacob had a son<br />> named Joseph who wore a really loud sports coat.<br />> <br />> <br />> Another important Bible guy is Moses, whose real name was Charlton Heston. <br />> Moses led the Israel Lights out of Egypt and away from the evil Pharaoh after God sent ten plagues on Pharaoh's people. These plagues included frogs, mice, lice, and no cable. <br />> God fed the Israel Lights every day with manicotti. Then he gave them His Top Ten Commandments. <br />> <br />> <br />> These include: <br />> don't lie, cheat, smoke, dance, or covet your<br />> neighbor's stuff.<br />> <br />> Oh, yeah, I just thought of one more:<br />> Humor thy father and thy mother.<br />> <br />> <br />> One of Moses' best helpers was Joshua who was the first<br />> Bible guy to use spies. Joshua fought the battle of Geritol and<br />> the fence fell over on the town.<br />> <br />> <br />> After Joshua came David. He got to be king by killing a giant with a slingshot. <br />> He had a son named Solomon who had about 300 wives and 500 porcupines. <br />> My teacher says he was wise, but that doesn't sound very wise to me.<br />> <br />> <br />> After Solomon there were a bunch of major league prophets. <br />> One of these was Jonah, who was swallowed by a big whale and then<br />> barfed up on the shore. There were also some minor league<br />> prophets, but I guess we don't have to worry about them.<br />> <br />> <br />> After the Old Testament came the New Testament. Jesus is the<br />> star of The New. He was born in Bethlehem in a barn.<br />> <br />> (I wish I had been born in a barn too, because my mom is always saying to me, <br />> 'Close the door! Were you born in a barn?' It would be nice to say, 'As a matter of fact, I was.')<br />> During His life, Jesus had many arguments with sinners like the Pharisees and the Democrats.<br />> Jesus also had twelve opossums. The worst one was Judas Asparagus. <br />> Judas was so evil that they named terrible vegetable after him.<br />> <br />> <br />> Jesus was a great man. He healed many leopards and even<br />> preached to some Germans on the Mount.<br />> <br />> <br />> But the Democrats and all those guys put Jesus on trial before Pontius the Pilot. <br />> Pilot didn't stick up for Jesus. He just washed his hands instead.<br />> <br />> <br />> Anyway's, Jesus died for our sins, then came back to life again.<br />> He went up to Heaven but will be back at the end of the Aluminum. <br />> His return is foretold in the book of RevolutionDuke Eversmeyerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12979421184987312497noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7936381627778855349.post-55095849301301119342008-09-22T07:33:00.000-07:002008-09-22T08:03:43.051-07:00Lesson 3 Readings from the TanakhBereshit 4<br />1 And the man knew Eve his wife; and she conceived and bore Cain, and said: 'I have gotten a man with the help of HaShem.'<br /><br />2 And again she bore his brother Abel. And Abel was a keeper of sheep, but Cain was a tiller of the ground.<br /><br />3 And in process of time it came to pass, that Cain brought of the fruit of the ground an offering unto HaShem.<br /><br />4 And Abel, he also brought of the firstlings of his flock and of the fat thereof. And HaShem had respect unto Abel and to his offering;<br /><br />5 but unto Cain and to his offering He had not respect. And Cain was very wroth, and his countenance fell.<br /><br />6 And HaShem said unto Cain: 'Why art thou wroth? and why is thy countenance fallen?<br /><br />7 If thou doest well, shall it not be lifted up? and if thou doest not well, sin coucheth at the door; and unto thee is its desire, but thou mayest rule over it.'<br /><br />8 And Cain spoke unto Abel his brother. And it came to pass, when they were in the field, that Cain rose up against Abel his brother, and slew him.<br /><br />9 And HaShem said unto Cain: 'Where is Abel thy brother?' And he said: 'I know not; am I my brother's keeper?'<br /><br />10 And He said: 'What hast thou done? the voice of thy brother's blood crieth unto Me from the ground.<br /><br />11 And now cursed art thou from the ground, which hath opened her mouth to receive thy brother's blood from thy hand.<br /><br />12 When thou tillest the ground, it shall not henceforth yield unto thee her strength; a fugitive and a wanderer shalt thou be in the earth.'<br /><br />13 And Cain said unto HaShem: 'My punishment is greater than I can bear.<br /><br />14 Behold, Thou hast driven me out this day from the face of the land; and from Thy face shall I be hid; and I shall be a fugitive and a wanderer in the earth; and it will come to pass, that whosoever findeth me will slay me.'<br /><br />15 And HaShem said unto him: 'Therefore whosoever slayeth Cain, vengeance shall be taken on him sevenfold.' And HaShem set a sign for Cain, lest any finding him should smite him.<br /><br />16 And Cain went out from the presence of HaShem, and dwelt in the land of Nod, on the east of Eden.<br /><br />17 And Cain knew his wife; and she conceived, and bore Enoch; and he builded a city, and called the name of the city after the name of his son Enoch.<br /><br />18 And unto Enoch was born Irad; and Irad begot Mehujael; and Mehujael begot Methushael; and Methushael begot Lamech.<br /><br />19 And Lamech took unto him two wives; the name of one was Adah, and the name of the other Zillah.<br /><br />20 And Adah bore Jabal; he was the father of such as dwell in tents and have cattle.<br /><br />21 And his brother's name was Jubal; he was the father of all such as handle the harp and pipe.<br /><br />22 And Zillah, she also bore Tubal-cain, the forger of every cutting instrument of brass and iron; and the sister of Tubal-cain was Naamah.<br /><br />23 And Lamech said unto his wives: Adah and Zillah, hear my voice; ye wives of Lamech, hearken unto my speech; for I have slain a man for wounding me, and a young man for bruising me;<br /><br />24 If Cain shall be avenged sevenfold, truly Lamech seventy and sevenfold.<br /><br />25 And Adam knew his wife again; and she bore a son, and called his name Seth: 'for G-d hath appointed me another seed instead of Abel; for Cain slew him.'<br /><br />26 And to Seth, to him also there was born a son; and he called his name Enosh; then began men to call upon the name of HaShem.<br /><br /> Bereshit 5<br />1 This is the book of the generations of Adam. In the day that G-d created man, in the likeness of G-d made He him;<br /><br />2 male and female created He them, and blessed them, and called their name Adam, in the day when they were created.<br /><br />3 And Adam lived a hundred and thirty years, and begot a son in his own likeness, after his image; and called his name Seth.<br /><br />4 And the days of Adam after he begot Seth were eight hundred years; and he begot sons and daughters.<br /><br />5 And all the days that Adam lived were nine hundred and thirty years; and he died.<br /><br />6 And Seth lived a hundred and five years, and begot Enosh.<br /><br />7 And Seth lived after he begot Enosh eight hundred and seven years, and begot sons and daughters.<br /><br />8 And all the days of Seth were nine hundred and twelve years; and he died.<br /><br />9 And Enosh lived ninety years, and begot Kenan.<br /><br />10 And Enosh lived after he begot Kenan eight hundred and fifteen years, and begot sons and daughters.<br /><br />11 And all the days of Enosh were nine hundred and five years; and he died.<br /><br />12 And Kenan lived seventy years, and begot Mahalalel.<br /><br />13 And Kenan lived after he begot Mahalalel eight hundred and forty years, and begot sons and daughters.<br /><br />14 And all the days of Kenan were nine hundred and ten years; and he died.<br /><br />15 And Mahalalel lived sixty and five years, and begot Jared.<br /><br />16 And Mahalalel lived after he begot Jared eight hundred and thirty years, and begot sons and daughters.<br /><br />17 And all the days of Mahalalel were eight hundred ninety and five years; and he died.<br /><br />18 And Jared lived a hundred sixty and two years, and begot Enoch.<br /><br />19 And Jared lived after he begot Enoch eight hundred years, and begot sons and daughters.<br /><br />20 And all the days of Jared were nine hundred sixty and two years; and he died.<br /><br />21 And Enoch lived sixty and five years, and begot Methuselah.<br /><br />22 And Enoch walked with G-d after he begot Methuselah three hundred years, and begot sons and daughters.<br /><br />23 And all the days of Enoch were three hundred sixty and five years.<br /><br />24 And Enoch walked with G-d, and he was not; for G-d took him.<br /><br />25 And Methuselah lived a hundred eighty and seven years, and begot Lamech.<br /><br />26 And Methuselah lived after he begot Lamech seven hundred eighty and two years, and begot sons and daughters.<br /><br />27 And all the days of Methuselah were nine hundred sixty and nine years; and he died.<br /><br />28 And Lamech lived a hundred eighty and two years, and begot a son.<br /><br />29 And he called his name Noah, saying: 'This same shall comfort us in our work and in the toil of our hands, which cometh from the ground which HaShem hath cursed.'<br /><br />30 And Lamech lived after he begot Noah five hundred ninety and five years, and begot sons and daughters.<br /><br />31 And all the days of Lamech were seven hundred seventy and seven years; and he died.<br /><br />32 And Noah was five hundred years old; and Noah begot Shem, Ham, and Japheth.<br /><br /> Bereshit 6<br />1 And it came to pass, when men began to multiply on the face of the earth, and daughters were born unto them,<br /><br />2 that the sons of G-d saw the daughters of men that they were fair; and they took them wives, whomsoever they chose.<br /><br />3 And HaShem said: 'My spirit shall not abide in man for ever, for that he also is flesh; therefore shall his days be a hundred and twenty years.'<br /><br />4 The Nephilim were in the earth in those days, and also after that, when the sons of G-d came in unto the daughters of men, and they bore children to them; the same were the mighty men that were of old, the men of renown.<br /><br />5 And HaShem saw that the wickedness of man was great in the earth, and that every imagination of the thoughts of his heart was only evil continually.<br /><br />6 And it repented HaShem that He had made man on the earth, and it grieved Him at His heart.<br /><br />7 And HaShem said: 'I will blot out man whom I have created from the face of the earth; both man, and beast, and creeping thing, and fowl of the air; for it repenteth Me that I have made them.'<br /><br />8 But Noah found grace in the eyes of HaShem.<br /><br />9 These are the generations of Noah. Noah was in his generations a man righteous and wholehearted; Noah walked with G-d.<br /><br />10 And Noah begot three sons, Shem, Ham, and Japheth.<br /><br />11 And the earth was corrupt before G-d, and the earth was filled with violence.<br /><br />12 And G-d saw the earth, and, behold, it was corrupt; for all flesh had corrupted their way upon the earth.<br /><br />13 And G-d said unto Noah: 'The end of all flesh is come before Me; for the earth is filled with violence through them; and, behold, I will destroy them with the earth.<br /><br />14 Make thee an ark of gopher wood; with rooms shalt thou make the ark, and shalt pitch it within and without with pitch.<br /><br />15 And this is how thou shalt make it: the length of the ark three hundred cubits, the breadth of it fifty cubits, and the height of it thirty cubits.<br /><br />16 A light shalt thou make to the ark, and to a cubit shalt thou finish it upward; and the door of the ark shalt thou set in the side thereof; with lower, second, and third stories shalt thou make it.<br /><br />17 And I, behold, I do bring the flood of waters upon the earth, to destroy all flesh, wherein is the breath of life, from under heaven; every thing that is in the earth shall perish.<br /><br />18 But I will establish My covenant with thee; and thou shalt come into the ark, thou, and thy sons, and thy wife, and thy sons' wives with thee.<br /><br />19 And of every living thing of all flesh, two of every sort shalt thou bring into the ark, to keep them alive with thee; they shall be male and female.<br /><br />20 Of the fowl after their kind, and of the cattle after their kind, of every creeping thing of the ground after its kind, two of every sort shall come unto thee, to keep them alive.<br /><br />21 And take thou unto thee of all food that is eaten, and gather it to thee; and it shall be for food for thee, and for them.'<br /><br />22 Thus did Noah; according to all that G-d commanded him, so did he.<br /><br /> Bereshit 7<br />1 And HaShem said unto Noah: 'Come thou and all thy house into the ark; for thee have I seen righteous before Me in this generation.<br /><br />2 Of every clean beast thou shalt take to thee seven and seven, each with his mate; and of the beasts that are not clean two and two, each with his mate;<br /><br />3 of the fowl also of the air, seven and seven, male and female; to keep seed alive upon the face of all the earth.<br /><br />4 For yet seven days, and I will cause it to rain upon the earth forty days and forty nights; and every living substance that I have made will I blot out from off the face of the earth.'<br /><br />5 And Noah did according unto all that HaShem commanded him.<br /><br />6 And Noah was six hundred years old when the flood of waters was upon the earth.<br /><br />7 And Noah went in, and his sons, and his wife, and his sons' wives with him, into the ark, because of the waters of the flood.<br /><br />8 Of clean beasts, and of beasts that are not clean, and of fowls, and of every thing that creepeth upon the ground,<br /><br />9 there went in two and two unto Noah into the ark, male and female, as G-d commanded Noah.<br /><br />10 And it came to pass after the seven days, that the waters of the flood were upon the earth.<br /><br />11 In the six hundredth year of Noah's life, in the second month, on the seventeenth day of the month, on the same day were all the fountains of the great deep broken up, and the windows of heaven were opened.<br /><br />12 And the rain was upon the earth forty days and forty nights.<br /><br />13 In the selfsame day entered Noah, and Shem, and Ham, and Japheth, the sons of Noah, and Noah's wife, and the three wives of his sons with them, into the ark;<br /><br />14 they, and every beast after its kind, and all the cattle after their kind, and every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth after its kind, and every fowl after its kind, every bird of every sort.<br /><br />15 And they went in unto Noah into the ark, two and two of all flesh wherein is the breath of life. 16 And they that went in, went in male and female of all flesh, as G-d commanded him; and HaShem shut him in.<br /><br />17 And the flood was forty days upon the earth; and the waters increased, and bore up the ark, and it was lifted up above the earth.<br /><br />18 And the waters prevailed, and increased greatly upon the earth; and the ark went upon the face of the waters.<br /><br />19 And the waters prevailed exceedingly upon the earth; and all the high mountains that were under the whole heaven were covered.<br /><br />20 Fifteen cubits upward did the waters prevail; and the mountains were covered.<br /><br />21 And all flesh perished that moved upon the earth, both fowl, and cattle, and beast, and every swarming thing that swarmeth upon the earth, and every man;<br /><br />22 all in whose nostrils was the breath of the spirit of life, whatsoever was in the dry land, died.<br /><br />23 And He blotted out every living substance which was upon the face of the ground, both man, and cattle, and creeping thing, and fowl of the heaven; and they were blotted out from the earth; and Noah only was left, and they that were with him in the ark.<br /><br />24 And the waters prevailed upon the earth a hundred and fifty days.<br /><br /> Bereshit 8<br /><br />1 And G-d remembered Noah, and every living thing, and all the cattle that were with him in the ark; and G-d made a wind to pass over the earth, and the waters assuaged;<br /><br />2 the fountains also of the deep and the windows of heaven were stopped, and the rain from heaven was restrained.<br /><br />3 And the waters returned from off the earth continually; and after the end of a hundred and fifty days the waters decreased.<br /><br />4 And the ark rested in the seventh month, on the seventeenth day of the month, upon the mountains of Ararat.<br /><br />5 And the waters decreased continually until the tenth month; in the tenth month, on the first day of the month, were the tops of the mountains seen.<br /><br />6 And it came to pass at the end of forty days, that Noah opened the window of the ark which he had made.<br /><br />7 And he sent forth a raven, and it went forth to and fro, until the waters were dried up from off the earth.<br /><br />8 And he sent forth a dove from him, to see if the waters were abated from off the face of the ground.<br /><br />9 But the dove found no rest for the sole of her foot, and she returned unto him to the ark, for the waters were on the face of the whole earth; and he put forth his hand, and took her, and brought her in unto him into the ark.<br /><br />10 And he stayed yet other seven days; and again he sent forth the dove out of the ark.<br /><br />11 And the dove came in to him at eventide; and lo in her mouth an olive-leaf freshly plucked; so Noah knew that the waters were abated from off the earth.<br /><br />12 And he stayed yet other seven days; and sent forth the dove; and she returned not again unto him any more.<br /><br />13 And it came to pass in the six hundred and first year, in the first month, the first day of the month, the waters were dried up from off the earth; and Noah removed the covering of the ark, and looked, and behold, the face of the ground was dried.<br /><br />14 And in the second month, on the seven and twentieth day of the month, was the earth dry. 15 And G-d spoke unto Noah, saying:<br /><br />16 'Go forth from the ark, thou, and thy wife, and thy sons, and thy sons' wives with thee.<br /><br />17 Bring forth with thee every living thing that is with thee of all flesh, both fowl, and cattle, and every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth; that they may swarm in the earth, and be fruitful, and multiply upon the earth.'<br /><br />18 And Noah went forth, and his sons, and his wife, and his sons' wives with him;<br /><br />19 every beast, every creeping thing, and every fowl, whatsoever moveth upon the earth, after their families; went forth out of the ark.<br /><br />20 And Noah builded an altar unto HaShem; and took of every clean beast, and of every clean fowl, and offered burnt-offerings on the altar.<br /><br />21 And HaShem smelled the sweet savour; and HaShem said in His heart: 'I will not again curse the ground any more for man's sake; for the imagination of man's heart is evil from his youth; neither will I again smite any more every thing living, as I have done.<br /><br />22 While the earth remaineth, seedtime and harvest, and cold and heat, and summer and winter, and day and night shall not cease.'<br /><br /> Bereshit 9<br />1 And G-d blessed Noah and his sons, and said unto them: 'Be fruitful and multiply, and replenish the earth.<br /><br />2 And the fear of you and the dread of you shall be upon every beast of the earth, and upon every fowl of the air, and upon all wherewith the ground teemeth, and upon all the fishes of the sea: into your hand are they delivered.<br /><br />3 Every moving thing that liveth shall be for food for you; as the green herb have I given you all.<br /><br />4 Only flesh with the life thereof, which is the blood thereof, shall ye not eat.<br /><br />5 And surely your blood of your lives will I require; at the hand of every beast will I require it; and at the hand of man, even at the hand of every man's brother, will I require the life of man.<br /><br />6 Whoso sheddeth man's blood, by man shall his blood be shed; for in the image of G-d made He man.<br /><br />7 And you, be ye fruitful, and multiply; swarm in the earth, and multiply therein.'<br /><br />8 And G-d spoke unto Noah, and to his sons with him, saying:<br /><br />9 'As for Me, behold, I establish My covenant with you, and with your seed after you;<br /><br />10 and with every living creature that is with you, the fowl, the cattle, and every beast of the earth with you; of all that go out of the ark, even every beast of the earth.<br /><br />11 And I will establish My covenant with you; neither shall all flesh be cut off any more by the waters of the flood; neither shall there any more be a flood to destroy the earth.'<br /><br />12 And G-d said: 'This is the token of the covenant which I make between Me and you and every living creature that is with you, for perpetual generations:<br /><br />13 I have set My bow in the cloud, and it shall be for a token of a covenant between Me and the earth.<br /><br />14 And it shall come to pass, when I bring clouds over the earth, and the bow is seen in the cloud,<br /><br />15 that I will remember My covenant, which is between Me and you and every living creature of all flesh; and the waters shall no more become a flood to destroy all flesh.<br /><br />16 And the bow shall be in the cloud; and I will look upon it, that I may remember the everlasting covenant between G-d and every living creature of all flesh that is upon the earth.'<br /><br />17 And G-d said unto Noah: 'This is the token of the covenant which I have established between Me and all flesh that is upon the earth.'<br /><br />18 And the sons of Noah, that went forth from the ark, were Shem, and Ham, and Japheth; and Ham is the father of Canaan.<br /><br />19 These three were the sons of Noah, and of these was the whole earth overspread.<br /><br />20 And Noah the husbandman began, and planted a vineyard.<br /><br />21 And he drank of the wine, and was drunken; and he was uncovered within his tent.<br /><br />22 And Ham, the father of Canaan, saw the nakedness of his father, and told his two brethren without.<br /><br />23 And Shem and Japheth took a garment, and laid it upon both their shoulders, and went backward, and covered the nakedness of their father; and their faces were backward, and they saw not their father's nakedness.<br /><br />24 And Noah awoke from his wine, and knew what his youngest son had done unto him.<br /><br />25 And he said: Cursed be Canaan; a servant of servants shall he be unto his brethren.<br /><br />26 And he said: Blessed be HaShem, the G-d of Shem; and let Canaan be their servant.<br /><br />27 G-d enlarge Japheth, and he shall dwell in the tents of Shem; and let Canaan be their servant.<br /><br />28 And Noah lived after the flood three hundred and fifty years.<br /><br />29 And all the days of Noah were nine hundred and fifty years; and he died.<br /><br /> Bereshit 10<br />1 Now these are the generations of the sons of Noah: Shem, Ham, and Japheth; and unto them were sons born after the flood.<br /><br />2 The sons of Japheth: Gomer, and Magog, and Madai, and Javan, and Tubal, and Meshech, and Tiras.<br /><br />3 And the sons of Gomer: Ashkenaz, and Riphath, and Togarmah.<br /><br />4 And the sons of Javan: Elishah, and Tarshish, Kittim, and Dodanim.<br /><br />5 Of these were the isles of the nations divided in their lands, every one after his tongue, after their families, in their nations.<br /><br />6 And the sons of Ham: Cush, and Mizraim, and Put, and Canaan.<br /><br />7 And the sons of Cush: Seba, and Havilah, and Sabtah, and Raamah, and Sabteca; and the sons of Raamah: Sheba, and Dedan.<br /><br />8 And Cush begot Nimrod; he began to be a mighty one in the earth.<br /><br />9 He was a mighty hunter before HaShem; wherefore it is said: 'Like Nimrod a mighty hunter before HaShem.'<br /><br />10 And the beginning of his kingdom was Babel, and Erech, and Accad, and Calneh, in the land of Shinar.<br /><br />11 Out of that land went forth Asshur, and builded Nineveh, and Rehoboth-ir, and Calah,<br /><br />12 and Resen between Nineveh and Calah--the same is the great city.<br /><br />13 And Mizraim begot Ludim, and Anamim, and Lehabim, and Naphtuhim,<br /><br />14 and Pathrusim, and Casluhim--whence went forth the Philistines--and Caphtorim.<br /><br />15 And Canaan begot Zidon his firstborn, and Heth;<br /><br />16 and the Jebusite, and the Amorite, and the Girgashite;<br /><br />17 and the Hivite, and the Arkite, and the Sinite;<br /><br />18 and the Arvadite, and the Zemarite, and the Hamathite; and afterward were the families of the Canaanite spread abroad.<br /><br />19 And the border of the Canaanite was from Zidon, as thou goest toward Gerar, unto Gaza; as thou goest toward Sodom and Gomorrah and Admah and Zeboiim, unto Lasha.<br /><br />20 These are the sons of Ham, after their families, after their tongues, in their lands, in their nations.<br /><br />21 And unto Shem, the father of all the children of Eber, the elder brother of Japheth, to him also were children born.<br /><br />22 The sons of Shem: Elam, and Asshur, and Arpachshad, and Lud, and Aram.<br /><br />23 And the sons of Aram: Uz, and Hul, and Gether, and Mash.<br /><br />24 And Arpachshad begot Shelah; and Shelah begot Eber.<br /><br />25 And unto Eber were born two sons; the name of the one was Peleg; for in his days was the earth divided; and his brother's name was Joktan.<br /><br />26 And Joktan begot Almodad, and Sheleph, and Hazarmaveth, and Jerah;<br /><br />27 and Hadoram, and Uzal, and Diklah;<br /><br />28 and Obal, and Abimael, and Sheba;<br /><br />29 and Ophir, and Havilah, and Jobab; all these were the sons of Joktan.<br /><br />30 And their dwelling was from Mesha, as thou goest toward Sephar, unto the mountain of the east.<br /><br />31 These are the sons of Shem, after their families, after their tongues, in their lands, after their nations.<br /><br />32 These are the families of the sons of Noah, after their generations, in their nations; and of these were the nations divided in the earth after the flood.<br /><br /> Bereshit 11<br /><br />1 And the whole earth was of one language and of one speech.<br /><br />2 And it came to pass, as they journeyed east, that they found a plain in the land of Shinar; and they dwelt there.<br /><br />3 And they said one to another: 'Come, let us make brick, and burn them thoroughly.' And they had brick for stone, and slime had they for mortar.<br /><br />4 And they said: 'Come, let us build us a city, and a tower, with its top in heaven, and let us make us a name; lest we be scattered abroad upon the face of the whole earth.'<br /><br />5 And HaShem came down to see the city and the tower, which the children of men builded.<br /><br />6 And HaShem said: 'Behold, they are one people, and they have all one language; and this is what they begin to do; and now nothing will be withholden from them, which they purpose to do. 7 Come, let us go down, and there confound their language, that they may not understand one another's speech.'<br /><br />8 So HaShem scattered them abroad from thence upon the face of all the earth; and they left off to build the city.<br /><br />9 Therefore was the name of it called Babel; because HaShem did there confound the language of all the earth; and from thence did HaShem scatter them abroad upon the face of all the earth.<br /><br />10 These are the generations of Shem. Shem was a hundred years old, and begot Arpachshad two years after the flood.<br /><br />11 And Shem lived after he begot Arpachshad five hundred years, and begot sons and daughters.<br /><br />12 And Arpachshad lived five and thirty years, and begot Shelah.<br /><br />13 And Arpachshad lived after he begot Shelah four hundred and three years, and begot sons and daughters.<br /><br />14 And Shelah lived thirty years, and begot Eber.<br /><br />15 And Shelah lived after he begot Eber four hundred and three years, and begot sons and daughters.<br /><br />16 And Eber lived four and thirty years, and begot Peleg.<br /><br />17 And Eber lived after he begot Peleg four hundred and thirty years, and begot sons and daughters.<br /><br />18 And Peleg lived thirty years, and begot Reu.<br /><br />19 And Peleg lived after he begot Reu two hundred and nine years, and begot sons and daughters. 20 And Reu lived two and thirty years, and begot Serug.<br /><br />21 And Reu lived after he begot Serug two hundred and seven years, and begot sons and daughters.<br /><br />22 And Serug lived thirty years, and begot Nahor.<br /><br />23 And Serug lived after he begot Nahor two hundred years, and begot sons and daughters.<br /><br />24 And Nahor lived nine and twenty years, and begot Terah.<br /><br />25 And Nahor lived after he begot Terah a hundred and nineteen years, and begot sons and daughters.<br /><br />26 And Terah lived seventy years, and begot Abram, Nahor, and Haran.<br /><br />27 Now these are the generations of Terah. Terah begot Abram, Nahor, and Haran; and Haran begot Lot.<br /><br />28 And Haran died in the presence of his father Terah in the land of his nativity, in Ur of the Chaldees.<br /><br />29 And Abram and Nahor took them wives: the name of Abram's wife was Sarai; and the name of Nahor's wife, Milcah, the daughter of Haran, the father of Milcah, and the father of Iscah.<br /><br />30 And Sarai was barren; she had no child.<br /><br />31 And Terah took Abram his son, and Lot the son of Haran, his son's son, and Sarai his daughter-in-law, his son Abram's wife; and they went forth with them from Ur of the Chaldees, to go into the land of Canaan; and they came unto Haran, and dwelt there.<br /><br />32 And the days of Terah were two hundred and five years; and Terah died in Haran.Duke Eversmeyerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12979421184987312497noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7936381627778855349.post-21902133189879768762008-09-17T07:28:00.000-07:002008-09-17T07:31:21.057-07:00Beresheet:2-3This week's scripture readings as they appear in the Tanakh:<br />4 These are the generations of the heaven and of the earth when they were created, in the day that HaShem G-d made earth and heaven.<br /><br />5 No shrub of the field was yet in the earth, and no herb of the field had yet sprung up; for HaShem G-d had not caused it to rain upon the earth, and there was not a man to till the ground;<br /><br />6 but there went up a mist from the earth, and watered the whole face of the ground.<br /><br />7 Then HaShem G-d formed man of the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and man became a living soul.<br /><br />8 And HaShem G-d planted a garden eastward, in Eden; and there He put the man whom He had formed.<br /><br />9 And out of the ground made HaShem G-d to grow every tree that is pleasant to the sight, and good for food; the tree of life also in the midst of the garden, and the tree of the knowledge of good and evil.<br /><br />10 And a river went out of Eden to water the garden; and from thence it was parted, and became four heads.<br /><br />11 The name of the first is Pishon; that is it which compasseth the whole land of Havilah, where there is gold;<br /><br />12 and the gold of that land is good; there is bdellium and the onyx stone.<br /><br />13 And the name of the second river is Gihon; the same is it that compasseth the whole land of Cush.<br /><br />14 And the name of the third river is Tigris; that is it which goeth toward the east of Asshur And the fourth river is the Euphrates.<br /><br />15 And HaShem G-d took the man, and put him into the garden of Eden to dress it and to keep it.<br /><br />16 And HaShem G-d commanded the man, saying: 'Of every tree of the garden thou mayest freely eat;<br /><br />17 but of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, thou shalt not eat of it; for in the day that thou eatest thereof thou shalt surely die.'<br /><br />18 And HaShem G-d said: 'It is not good that the man should be alone; I will make him a help meet for him.'<br /><br />19 And out of the ground HaShem G-d formed every beast of the field, and every fowl of the air; and brought them unto the man to see what he would call them; and whatsoever the man would call every living creature, that was to be the name thereof.<br /><br />20 And the man gave names to all cattle, and to the fowl of the air, and to every beast of the field; but for Adam there was not found a help meet for him.<br /><br />21 And HaShem G-d caused a deep sleep to fall upon the man, and he slept; and He took one of his ribs, and closed up the place with flesh instead thereof.<br /><br />22 And the rib, which HaShem G-d had taken from the man, made He a woman, and brought her unto the man.<br /><br />23 And the man said: 'This is now bone of my bones, and flesh of my flesh; she shall be called Woman, because she was taken out of Man.'<br /><br />24 Therefore shall a man leave his father and his mother, and shall cleave unto his wife, and they shall be one flesh.<br /><br />25 And they were both naked, the man and his wife, and were not ashamed. <br /><br />1 Now the serpent was more subtle than any beast of the field which HaShem G-d had made. And he said unto the woman: 'Yea, hath G-d said: Ye shall not eat of any tree of the garden?'<br /><br />2 And the woman said unto the serpent: 'Of the fruit of the trees of the garden we may eat;<br /><br />3 but of the fruit of the tree which is in the midst of the garden, G-d hath said: Ye shall not eat of it, neither shall ye touch it, lest ye die.'<br /><br />4 And the serpent said unto the woman: 'Ye shall not surely die;<br /><br />5 for G-d doth know that in the day ye eat thereof, then your eyes shall be opened, and ye shall be as G-d, knowing good and evil.'<br /><br />6 And when the woman saw that the tree was good for food, and that it was a delight to the eyes, and that the tree was to be desired to make one wise, she took of the fruit thereof, and did eat; and she gave also unto her husband with her, and he did eat.<br /><br />7 And the eyes of them both were opened, and they knew that they were naked; and they sewed fig-leaves together, and made themselves girdles.<br /><br />8 And they heard the voice of HaShem G-d walking in the garden toward the cool of the day; and the man and his wife hid themselves from the presence of HaShem G-d amongst the trees of the garden.<br /><br />9 And HaShem G-d called unto the man, and said unto him: 'Where art thou?'<br /><br />10 And he said: 'I heard Thy voice in the garden, and I was afraid, because I was naked; and I hid myself.'<br /><br />11 And He said: 'Who told thee that thou wast naked? Hast thou eaten of the tree, whereof I commanded thee that thou shouldest not eat?'<br /><br />12 And the man said: 'The woman whom Thou gavest to be with me, she gave me of the tree, and I did eat.'<br /><br />13 And HaShem G-d said unto the woman: 'What is this thou hast done?' And the woman said: 'The serpent beguiled me, and I did eat.'<br /><br />14 And HaShem G-d said unto the serpent: 'Because thou hast done this, cursed art thou from among all cattle, and from among all beasts of the field; upon thy belly shalt thou go, and dust shalt thou eat all the days of thy life.<br /><br />15 And I will put enmity between thee and the woman, and between thy seed and her seed; they shall bruise thy head, and thou shalt bruise their heel.'<br /><br />16 Unto the woman He said: 'I will greatly multiply thy pain and thy travail; in pain thou shalt bring forth children; and thy desire shall be to thy husband, and he shall rule over thee.'<br /><br />17 And unto Adam He said: 'Because thou hast hearkened unto the voice of thy wife, and hast eaten of the tree, of which I commanded thee, saying: Thou shalt not eat of it; cursed is the ground for thy sake; in toil shalt thou eat of it all the days of thy life.<br /><br />18 Thorns also and thistles shall it bring forth to thee; and thou shalt eat the herb of the field.<br /><br />19 In the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread, till thou return unto the ground; for out of it wast thou taken; for dust thou art, and unto dust shalt thou return.'<br /><br />20 And the man called his wife's name Eve; because she was the mother of all living.<br /><br />21 And HaShem G-d made for Adam and for his wife garments of skins, and clothed them.<br /><br />22 And HaShem G-d said: 'Behold, the man is become as one of us, to know good and evil; and now, lest he put forth his hand, and take also of the tree of life, and eat, and live for ever.'<br /><br />23 Therefore HaShem G-d sent him forth from the garden of Eden, to till the ground from whence he was taken.<br /><br />24 So He drove out the man; and He placed at the east of the garden of Eden the cherubim, and the flaming sword which turned every way, to keep the way to the tree of life.Duke Eversmeyerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12979421184987312497noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7936381627778855349.post-27174238972645466652008-02-13T12:13:00.000-08:002008-02-13T12:14:47.851-08:00Lesson 19 St. PhillipPhilip was one of the <a title="Twelve Apostles" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twelve_Apostles">Twelve Apostles</a> of <a title="Jesus" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesus">Jesus</a>. Later <a title="Christian tradition" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_tradition">Christian traditions</a> describe Philip as the apostle who <a title="Proselytism" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proselytism">proselytized</a> in <a title="Greece" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greece">Greece</a>, <a title="Syria" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria">Syria</a>, and <a title="Phrygia" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phrygia">Phrygia</a>. He was martyred by crucifixion in the city of <a title="Hierapolis" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierapolis">Hierapolis</a>. In the Catholic Church, the <a title="Calendar of saints" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calendar_of_saints">feast day</a> of Saint Philip, along with <a title="James the Just" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_the_Just">Saint James</a>, has traditionally been observed on <a title="May 1" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May_1">1 May</a>, but was moved to <a title="May 11" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May_11">11 May</a>, the next free day, in 1955 due to the addition of <a title="Saint Joseph" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Joseph">Saint Joseph the Workman</a>. In 1970, with the suppression of many feasts during the revision of the calendar, it was placed on <a title="May 3" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May_3">3 May</a>. Members of the <a title="Eastern Orthodox Church" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church">Eastern Orthodox Church</a> celebrate it on <a title="November 14" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/November_14">November 14</a>. Many churches in the <a title="Anglican Communion" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglican_Communion">Anglican Communion</a> continue to celebrate it on <a title="May 1" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May_1">1 May</a>.<br /><a title="Gnostic" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnostic">Gnostic</a> Christians appealed to the apostolic authority of Philip, ascribing a number of gnostic texts to him, most notably the <a title="Gospel of Philip" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel_of_Philip">Gospel of Philip</a> from the <a title="Nag Hammadi library" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nag_Hammadi_library">Nag Hammadi library</a>.<br />Philip the Apostle is not to be confused with <a title="Philip the Evangelist" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_the_Evangelist">Philip the Evangelist</a> from the <a title="Acts of the Apostles" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acts_of_the_Apostles">Book of Acts</a>.<br />Contents<br />New Testament<br />The <a title="Gospel of John" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel_of_John">Gospel of John</a> describes Philip's calling as a <a title="Disciple (Christianity)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disciple_%28Christianity%29">disciple</a> of Jesus.<a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#_note-0">[1]</a> The narrative of Philip's call as a disciple describes him as being from the city of <a title="Bethsaida" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bethsaida">Bethsaida</a>, and connects him to <a title="Saint Andrew" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Andrew">Andrew</a> and <a title="Saint Peter" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Peter">Peter</a>, who were from the same town.<a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#_note-1">[2]</a> It further connects him to <a title="Nathaniel" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nathaniel">Nathaniel</a> (sometimes identified with <a title="Bartholomew" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bartholomew">Bartholomew</a>), by describing how Philip introduced Nathaniel to Jesus.<a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#_note-2">[3]</a> The authors of the <a title="Synoptic Gospels" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synoptic_Gospels">Synoptic Gospels</a> also describe Philip as a disciple of Jesus.<a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#_note-3">[4]</a><br />Of the four Gospels, Philip figures most prominently in the Gospel of John. His two most notable appearances in the narrative are as a link to the <a title="Greek language" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language">Greek-speaking</a> Jewish community (Philip introduces members of this community to Jesus<a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#_note-4">[5]</a>); and during the <a title="Last Supper" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Last_Supper">Last Supper</a> when he asked Jesus to see the Father, providing Jesus the opportunity to teach about the unity of the Father and the Son.<a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#_note-5">[6]</a><br />Philip is always listed fifth among the apostles (Matthew 10:3, Mark 3:18, Luke 6:14 and Acts 1:13).<br />Christian Tradition<br />Christian stories about Philip's life and ministry can be found in the extra-canonical writings of later Christians than in the New Testament. One of the most reliable fragments of knowledge about Philip comes from the head of the <a title="Catechetical School of Alexandria" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catechetical_School_of_Alexandria">Catechetical School of Alexandria</a>, <a title="Clement of Alexandria" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clement_of_Alexandria">Clement</a>, who states that Philip was married, had children, and one of his daughters was also married.<a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#_note-6">[7]</a> Other legendary material about Philip can be misleading, as many hagiographers conflated Philip the Apostle with Philip the Evangelist. The most notable and influential example of this is the hagiography of Eusebius, in which Eusebius clearly assumes that both Philips are the same person.<a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#_note-7">[8]</a> As early as 1260, <a title="Jacobus de Voragine" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacobus_de_Voragine">Jacobus de Voragine</a> noted in his <a title="Golden Legend" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Legend">Golden Legend</a> that the account of Philip's life given by Eusebius was not to be trusted.<a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#_note-8">[9]</a><br />Later stories about Philip's life can be found in the anonymous <a title="Acts of Philip" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acts_of_Philip">Acts of Philip</a>, probably written by a contemporary of Eusebius.<a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#_note-9">[10]</a> This non-canonical book recounts the preaching and miracles of Philip. Following the resurrection of Jesus, Philip was sent with his sister <a title="Mariamme" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariamme">Mariamme</a> and <a title="Bartholomew" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bartholomew">Bartolomew</a> to preach in <a title="Greece" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greece">Greece</a>, <a title="Phrygia" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phrygia">Phrygia</a>, and <a title="Syria" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria">Syria</a>.<a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#_note-10">[11]</a> Included in the Acts of Philip is an appendix, entitled "Of the Journeyings of Philip the Apostle: From the Fifteenth Act Until the End, and Among Them the Martyrdom." This appendix gives an account of Philip's martyrdom in the city of Hierapolis.<a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#_note-11">[12]</a> According to this account, through a miraculous healing and his preaching Philip converted the wife of the proconsul of the city. This enraged the proconsul, and he had Philip, Bartholomew, and Mariamme all tortured. Philip and Bartholomew were then crucified upside down, and Philip preached from his cross. As a result of Philip's preaching the crowd released Bartholomew from his cross, but Philip insisted that they not release him, and Philip died on the cross.<br />In the <a title="Unity Church" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unity_Church">Unity Church</a>, Philip is the Apostle associated with the power of dominion, or power, as per <a title="Charles Fillmore (Unity Church)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Fillmore_%28Unity_Church%29">Charles Fillmore</a>'s <a title="The Twelve Powers of Man" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Twelve_Powers_of_Man">The Twelve Powers of Man</a>.<br />The <a title="Koine Greek" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koine_Greek">Greek</a> Acts of Philip (Acta Philippi) is an unorthodox episodic <a title="Apocrypha" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apocrypha">apocryphal</a> mid-to late fourth-century <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#_note-0">[1]</a> narrative, originally in fifteen separate <a title="Acta" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acta">acta</a>,<a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#_note-1">[2]</a> that gives an accounting of the miraculous acts performed by the <a title="Apostle Philip" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apostle_Philip">Apostle Philip</a>, with overtones of the <a title="Romance (genre)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romance_%28genre%29">genre of Romance</a>.<br />Some of these episodes are identifiable as belonging to more closely related "cycles".<a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#_note-2">[3]</a> Two episodes recounting events of Philip's commission (3 and 8) have survived in both shorter and longer versions. There is no commission narrative in the surviving texts: Philip's authority rests on the prayers and benediction of Peter and John and is explicitly bolstered by a divine epiphany, in which the voice of Jesus urges "Hurry Philip! Behold, my angel is with you, do not neglect your task" and "Jesus is secretly walking with him".(ch. 3).<br />The Acts of Philip is most completely represented by a text<a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#_note-3">[4]</a> discovered in 1974 by François Bovon and Bertrand Bouvier in the library of <a title="Xenophontos monastery" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenophontos_monastery">Xenophontos monastery</a> on <a title="Mount Athos" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Athos">Mount Athos</a> in <a title="Greece" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greece">Greece</a>.<a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#_note-harvard">[5]</a> The manuscript dates from the fourteenth century but its language identifies it as a copy of a fourth century original.<a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#_note-harvard">[5]</a> Many of the narratives in the manuscript were already known from other sources, but some were hitherto unknown.<a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#_note-4">[6]</a> The narrative claims that <a title="Jesus" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesus">Jesus</a> sent out a group of followers to spread his message. The followers were <a title="Saint Philip" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Philip">Philip</a>, <a title="Saint Bartholomew" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Bartholomew">Bartholomew</a>, and— a leading figure in the second half of the text— woman named <a title="Mariamne (name)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariamne_%28name%29">Mariamne</a>, who is identified in the text as Philip's sister, and who. Bovon previous claim that that Mariamne could be identical to <a title="Mary Magdalene" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Magdalene">Mary Magdalene</a>.<a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#_note-harvard">[5]</a> However, following the Discovery Channel's popularized speculations in <a title="The Lost Tomb of Jesus" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lost_Tomb_of_Jesus">The Lost Tomb of Jesus</a>, Bovon publicly distanced himself from its claims, withdrawing his published assertion (Bovon 2002) that the Mariamne of the <a title="Talpiot Tomb" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talpiot_Tomb">Talpiot tomb</a> discussed in The Lost Tomb of Jesus is the same person,<a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#_note-5">[7]</a> writing in an open letter to the Society of Biblical Literature:<br />the Mariamne of the Acts of Philip is part of the apostolic team with Philip and Bartholomew; she teaches and baptizes: Philip baptizes men, Mary baptizes women. In the beginning, her faith is stronger than Philip's faith. This portrayal of Mariamne fits very well with the portrayal of Mary of Magdala in the <a title="Manichaeism" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manichaeism">Manichean Psalms</a>, the <a title="Gospel of Mary" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel_of_Mary">Gospel of Mary</a>, and <a title="Pistis Sophia" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pistis_Sophia">Pistis Sophia</a>. My interest is not historical, but on the level of literary traditions. I have suggested this identification in 1984 already in an article of New Testament Studies.<a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#_note-6">[8]</a><br />The text discovered by Bovon also described a community that practised <a title="Vegetarianism" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetarianism">vegetarianism</a> and <a title="Celibacy" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celibacy">celibacy</a>.<a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#_note-harvard">[5]</a> Women in the community <a title="Transvestism" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transvestism">wore men's clothes</a> and held positions of authority comparable to men, serving as <a title="Priest" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priest">priests</a> and <a title="Deacon" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deacon">deacons</a>.<a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#_note-harvard">[5]</a> The community used a form of the <a title="Eucharist" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eucharist">eucharist</a> where <a title="Vegetables" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetables">vegetables</a> and <a title="Water" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water">water</a> were consumed in place of <a title="Bread" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bread">bread</a> and <a title="Wine" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wine">wine</a>.<a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#_note-7">[9]</a> Among lesser miraculous accomplishments of the group were the conversion of a talking <a title="Leopard" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leopard">leopard</a> and a talking <a title="Goat" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goat">goat</a>,<a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#_note-harvard">[5]</a> as well as the slaying of a <a title="Dragon" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragon">dragon</a>.<a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#_note-8">[10]</a> "Speaking animals as helpers of the apostles are familiar figures in the apostolic Acts" (Czachesz 2002).<br />The manuscript discovered by Bovon has been published in a <a title="French language" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language">French</a> translation. An English translation was planned "within a few years" (as of <a title="2000" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000">2000</a>).<a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#_note-harvard">[5]</a> Previous English translations, such as in <a title="M.R. James" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M.R._James">M.R. James</a> are based on collections of fragments known from before Bovon's discovery.<br />Like the brothers, Peter and Andrew, Philip was a native of <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/02536a.htm">Bethsaida</a> on <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/14716b.htm">Lake Genesareth</a> (<a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/bible/joh001.htm#44">John 1:44</a>). He also was among those surrounding the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/08486b.htm">Baptist</a> when the latter first pointed out <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/08374c.htm">Jesus</a> as the Lamb of <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/06608a.htm">God</a>. On the day after Peter's call, when about to set out for <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/06341c.htm">Galilee</a>, <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/08374c.htm">Jesus</a> met Philip and called him to the Apostolate with the words, "Follow me". Philip <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/11181c.htm">obeyed</a> the call, and a little later brought <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/10711b.htm">Nathaniel</a> as a new <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/05029a.htm">disciple</a> (<a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/bible/joh001.htm#43">John 1:43-45</a>). On the occasion of the selection and sending out of the twelve, Philip is included among the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/01626c.htm">Apostles</a> proper. His name stands in the fifth place in the three lists (<a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/bible/mat010.htm#2">Matthew 10:2-4</a>; <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/bible/mar003.htm#14">Mark 3:14-19</a>; <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/bible/luk006.htm#13">Luke 6:13-16</a>) after the two pairs of brothers, Peter and Andrew, James and John. The <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/bible/joh000.htm">Fourth Gospel</a> records three episodes concerning Philip which occurred during the epoch of the public teaching of the Saviour:<br />Before the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/10338a.htm">miraculous</a> feeding of the multitude, Christ turns towards Philip with the question: "Whence shall we buy bread, that these may eat?" to which the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/01626c.htm">Apostle</a> answers: "Two hundred penny-worth of bread is not sufficient for them, that every one may take a little" (vi, 5-7).<br />When some <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/11388a.htm">heathens</a> in <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/08344x.htm">Jerusalem</a> came to Philip and expressed their desire to see <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/08374c.htm">Jesus</a>, Philip reported the fact to Andrew and then both brought the news to the Saviour (xii, 21-23).<br />When Philip, after Christ had spoken to His <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/01626c.htm">Apostles</a> of knowing and seeing the Father, said to Him: "Lord, shew us the Father, and it is enough for us", he received the answer: "He that seeth me, seeth the Father also" (xiv, 8-9).<br />These three episodes furnish a consistent character-sketch of Philip as a naïve, somewhat shy, sober-minded <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/09580c.htm">man</a>. No additional characteristics are given in the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/06655b.htm">Gospels</a> or the Acts, although he is mentioned in the latter work (i, 13) as belonging to the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/04112a.htm">Apostolic College</a>.<br />The second-century tradition concerning him is uncertain, inasmuch as a similar tradition is recorded concerning Philip the Deacon and <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/05645a.htm">Evangelist</a> -- a phenomenon which must be the result of confusion <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/03459a.htm">caused</a> by the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/05543b.htm">existence</a> of the two Philips. In his letter to <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/15408a.htm">St. Victor</a>, written about 189-98, <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/02581b.htm">bishop</a> Polycrates of Ephesus mentions among the "great <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/09244b.htm">lights</a>", whom the Lord will seek on the "last day", "Philip, one of the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/01626c.htm">Twelve Apostles</a>, who is <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/03071a.htm">buried</a> in Hieropolis with his two daughters, who grew old as <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/15458a.htm">virgins</a>", and a third daughter, who "led a life in the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/07409a.htm">Holy Ghost</a> and rests in Ephesus." On the other hand, according to the Dialogue of <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/03144a.htm">Caius</a>, directed against a <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/10521a.htm">Montanist</a> named Proclus, the latter declared that "there were four prophetesses, the daughters of Philip, at Hieropolis in <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/01777b.htm">Asia</a> where their and their father's grave is still situated." The Acts (xxi, 8-9) does indeed mention four prophetesses, the daughters of the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/04647c.htm">deacon</a> and "Evangelist" Philip, as then living in Caesarea with their father, and <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/05617b.htm">Eusebius</a> who gives the above-mentioned excerpts (Hist. Eccl., III, xxxii), refers Proclus' statement to these latter. The statement of <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/02581b.htm">Bishop</a> Polycrates carries in itself more authority, but it is extraordinary that three <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/15458a.htm">virgin</a> daughters of the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/01626c.htm">Apostle</a> Philip (two <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/03071a.htm">buried</a> in Hieropolis) should be mentioned, and that the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/04647c.htm">deacon</a> Philip should also have four daughters, said to have been <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/03071a.htm">buried</a> in Hieropolis. Here also perhaps we must suppose a confusion of the two Philips to have taken place, although it is difficult to decide which of the two, the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/01626c.htm">Apostle</a> or the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/04647c.htm">deacon</a>, was <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/03071a.htm">buried</a> in Hieropolis. Many modern historians <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/02408b.htm">believe</a> that it was the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/04647c.htm">deacon</a>; it is, however, possible that the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/01626c.htm">Apostle</a> was <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/03071a.htm">buried</a> there and that the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/04647c.htm">deacon</a> also lived and worked there and was there <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/03071a.htm">buried</a> with three of his daughters and that the latter were afterwards <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/05525a.htm">erroneously</a> regarded as the children of the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/01626c.htm">Apostle</a>. The <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/01601a.htm">apocryphal</a> "Acts of Philip," which are, however purely legendary and a tissue of fables, also refer Philip's death to Hieropolis. The remains of the Philip who was <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/03071a.htm">interred</a> in Hieropolis were later translated (as those of the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/01626c.htm">Apostle</a>) to Constantinople and thence to the church of the Dodici Apostoli in <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/13164a.htm">Rome</a>. The <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/06021b.htm">feast</a> of the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/01626c.htm">Apostle</a> is celebrated in the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/07424b.htm">Roman Church</a> on 1 May (together with that of James the Younger), and in the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/06752a.htm">Greek Church</a> on 14 November. [Editor's Note: The <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/06021b.htm">feast</a> is now celebrated on 3 May in the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/07424b.htm">Roman Church</a>.]Duke Eversmeyerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12979421184987312497noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7936381627778855349.post-20243589552913171112008-02-06T19:02:00.000-08:002008-02-06T19:03:07.124-08:00Lesson 18 St. StephenOne of the first <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/04647c.htm">deacons</a> and the first <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/03712a.htm">Christian</a> <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/09736b.htm">martyr</a>; <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/06021b.htm">feast</a> on 26 December. In the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/bible/act000.htm">Acts of the Apostles</a> the name of <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/14287a.htm">St. Stephen</a> occurs for the first time on the occasion of the appointment of the first <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/04647c.htm">deacons</a> (<a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/bible/act006.htm#5">Acts 6:5</a>). Dissatisfaction concerning the distribution of <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/01328f.htm">alms</a> from the community's fund having arisen in the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a>, seven men were selected and specially <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/11279a.htm">ordained</a> by the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/01626c.htm">Apostles</a> to take care of the temporal relief of the poorer members. Of these seven, Stephen, is the first mentioned and the best known.<br />Stephen's life previous to this appointment remains for us almost entirely in the dark. His name is Greek and suggests he was a Hellenist, i.e., one of those <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/08399a.htm">Jews</a> who had been born in some foreign land and whose native tongue was Greek; however, according to a fifth century tradition, the name Stephanos was only a Greek equivalent for the Aramaic Kelil (Syr. kelila, crown), which may be the protomartyr's original name and was inscribed on a slab found in his <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/14773b.htm">tomb</a>. It seems that Stephen was not a <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/12481c.htm">proselyte</a>, for the fact that Nicolas is the only one of the seven designated as such makes it almost certain that the others were <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/08399a.htm">Jews</a> by birth. That Stephen was a pupil of <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/06374b.htm">Gamaliel</a> is sometimes inferred from his able defence before the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/13444a.htm">Sanhedrin</a>; but this has not been <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/12454c.htm">proved</a>. Neither do we <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/08673a.htm">know</a> when and in what circumstances he became a <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/03712a.htm">Christian</a>; it is <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/05141a.htm">doubtful</a> whether the statement of <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/13393b.htm">St. Epiphanius</a> (Haer., xx, 4) numbering Stephen among the seventy <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/05029a.htm">disciples</a> is deserving of any <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/04476a.htm">credence</a>. His ministry as <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/04647c.htm">deacon</a> appears to have been mostly among the Hellenist <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/04347a.htm">converts</a> with whom the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/01626c.htm">Apostles</a> were at first less familiar; and the fact that the opposition he met with sprang up in the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/14379b.htm">synagogues</a> of the "Libertines" (probably the children of <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/08399a.htm">Jews</a> taken captive to <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/13164a.htm">Rome</a> by Pompey in 63 B. C. and freed hence the name Libertini), and "of the Cyrenians, and of the Alexandrians, and of them that were of Cilicia and <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/01777b.htm">Asia</a>" shows that he usually preached among the Hellenist <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/08399a.htm">Jews</a>. That he was pre eminently fitted for that work, his abilities and <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/03584b.htm">character</a>, which the author of the Acts dwells upon so fervently, are the best indication. The <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a> had, by selecting him for a <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/04647c.htm">deacon</a>, publicly acknowledged him as a man "of good <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/12776c.htm">reputation</a>, full of the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/07409a.htm">Holy Ghost</a> and wisdom" (<a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/bible/act006.htm#3">Acts 6:3</a>). He was "a <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/09580c.htm">man</a> full of <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/05752c.htm">faith</a>, and of the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/07409a.htm">Holy Ghost</a>" (vi, 5), "full of grace and <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/06147a.htm">fortitude</a>" (vi, 8); his uncommon oratorical powers and unimpeachable <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/09324a.htm">logic</a> no one was able to resist, so much so that to his arguments replete with the Divine energy of the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/13635b.htm">Scriptural</a> authorities <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/06608a.htm">God</a> added the weight of "great wonders and signs" (vi, 8). Great as was the efficacy of "the wisdom and the spirit that spoke" (vi, 10), still it could not bend the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/10321a.htm">minds</a> of the unwilling; to these the forceful preacher was fatally soon to become an enemy.<br />The conflict broke out when the cavillers of the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/14379b.htm">synagogues</a> "of the Libertines, and of the Cyreneans, and of the Alexandrians, and of them that were of Cilicia and <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/01777b.htm">Asia</a>", who had challenged Stephen to a dispute, came out completely discomfited (vi, 9 10); wounded <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/12405a.htm">pride</a> so inflamed their <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/07149b.htm">hatred</a> that they suborned <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/05781a.htm">false</a> <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/15677a.htm">witnesses</a> to testify that "they had heard him speak words of <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/02595a.htm">blasphemy</a> against Moses and against <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/06608a.htm">God</a>" (vi, 11).<br />No charge could be more apt to rouse the mob; the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/01489a.htm">anger</a> of the ancients and the scribes had been already kindled from the first reports of the preaching of the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/01626c.htm">Apostles</a>. Stephen was arrested, not without some <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/15446a.htm">violence</a> it seems (the Greek word synerpasan implies so much), and dragged before the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/13444a.htm">Sanhedrin</a>, where he was accused of saying that "<a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/08374c.htm">Jesus of Nazareth</a> shall destroy this place [the temple], and shall change the traditions which Moses delivered unto us" (vi, 12 14). No <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/05141a.htm">doubt</a> Stephen had by his language given some grounds for the accusation; his accusers apparently twisted into the offensive utterance attributed to him a declaration that "the most High dwelleth not in houses made by hands" (vii, 48), some mention of <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/08374c.htm">Jesus</a> foretelling the destruction of the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/14499a.htm">Temple</a> and some inveighing against the burthensome traditions fencing about the Law, or rather the asseveration so often repeated by the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/01626c.htm">Apostles</a> that "there is no <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/13407a.htm">salvation</a> in any other" (cf. iv, 12) the Law not excluded but <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/08374c.htm">Jesus</a>. However this may be, the accusation left him unperturbed and "all that sat in the council...saw his face as if it had been the face of an <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/01476d.htm">angel</a>" (vi, 15).<br />Stephen's answer (<a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/bible/act007.htm">Acts 7</a>) was a long recital of the mercies of <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/06608a.htm">God</a> towards <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/08193a.htm">Israel</a> during its long history and of the ungratefulness by which, throughout, <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/08193a.htm">Israel</a> repaid these mercies. This discourse contained many things unpleasant to <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/08399a.htm">Jewish</a> ears; but the concluding indictment for having betrayed and <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/07441a.htm">murdered</a> the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/08571c.htm">Just</a> One whose coming the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/12477a.htm">Prophets</a> had foretold, provoked the rage of an audience made up not of judges, but of foes. When Stephen "looking up steadfastly to <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/07170a.htm">heaven</a>, saw the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/06585a.htm">glory</a> of <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/06608a.htm">God</a>, and <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/08374c.htm">Jesus</a> standing on the right hand of <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/06608a.htm">God</a>", and said: "Behold, I see the heavens opened, and the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/14144a.htm">Son of man</a> standing on the right hand of <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/06608a.htm">God</a>" (vii, 55), they ran <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/15446a.htm">violently</a> upon him (vii, 56) and cast him out of the city to stone him to death. Stephen's <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/14308a.htm">stoning</a> does not appear in the narrative of the Acts as a deed of mob <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/15446a.htm">violence</a>; it must have been looked upon by those who took part in it as the carrying out of the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/09053a.htm">law</a>. According to <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/09053a.htm">law</a> (<a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/bible/lev024.htm#14">Leviticus 24:14</a>), or at least its usual interpretation, Stephen had been taken out of the city; <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/04576a.htm">custom</a> required that the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/11726a.htm">person</a> to be <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/14308a.htm">stoned</a> be placed on an elevation from whence with his hands bound he was to be thrown down. It was most likely while these preparations were going on that, "falling on his knees, he cried with a loud voice, saying: "Lord, lay not this <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/14004b.htm">sin</a> to their charge" (vii, 59). Meanwhile the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/15677a.htm">witnesses</a>, whose hands must be first on the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/11726a.htm">person</a> condemned by their testimony (<a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/bible/deu017.htm#7">Deuteronomy 17:7</a>), were laying down their garments at the feet of Saul, that they might be more ready for the task <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/04768a.htm">devolved</a> upon them (vii, 57). The <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/12345b.htm">praying</a> <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/09736b.htm">martyr</a> was thrown down; and while the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/15677a.htm">witnesses</a> were thrusting upon him "a stone as much as two men could carry", he was heard to utter this supreme <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/12345b.htm">prayer</a>: "<a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/08374c.htm">Lord Jesus</a>, receive my spirit" (vii, 58). Little did all the people present, casting stones upon him, realize that the blood they shed was the first seed of a harvest that was to cover the world.<br />The bodies of men <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/14308a.htm">stoned</a> to death were to be <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/03071a.htm">buried</a> in a place appointed by the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/13444a.htm">Sanhedrin</a>. Whether in this instance the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/13444a.htm">Sanhedrin</a> insisted on its <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/13055c.htm">right</a> cannot be <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/01179a.htm">affirmed</a>; at any rate, "devout men" -- whether <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/03712a.htm">Christians</a> or <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/08399a.htm">Jews</a>, we are not told -- "took order for Stephen's funeral, and made great mourning over him" (vii, 2). For centuries the location of <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/14287a.htm">St. Stephen's</a> <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/14773b.htm">tomb</a> was lost sight of, until (415) a certain <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/12406a.htm">priest</a> named Lucian learned by <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/13001a.htm">revelation</a> that the sacred body was in Caphar Gamala, some distance to the north of <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/08344x.htm">Jerusalem</a>. The <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/12734a.htm">relics</a> were then exhumed and carried first to the church of Mount Sion, then, in 460, to the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/02325a.htm">basilica</a> erected by <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/05597a.htm">Eudocia</a> outside the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/04611a.htm">Damascus</a> Gate, on the spot where, according to tradition, the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/14308a.htm">stoning</a> had taken place (the opinion that the scene of <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/14287a.htm">St. Stephen's</a> <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/09736b.htm">martyrdom</a> was east of <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/08344x.htm">Jerusalem</a>, near the Gate called since <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/14287a.htm">St. Stephen's</a> Gate, is unheard of until the twelfth century). The site of the Eudocian <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/02325a.htm">basilica</a> was identified some twenty years ago, and a new edifice has been erected on the old foundations by the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/cathen/12354c.htm">Dominican</a> Fathers.<br />The only first hand source of information on the life and death of St. Stephen is the <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/bible/act000.htm">Acts of the Apostles</a> (<a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/bible/act006.htm#1">6:1-8:2</a>).<br />Also known as<br />Stephen the Deacon<br />Memorial<br /><a title="feasts and memorials of 26 December" href="http://catholic-forum.com/saints/day1226.htm">26 December</a><br />Profile<br />First Christian <a title="patrons of martyrs" href="http://catholic-forum.com/saints/pst00808.htm">Martyr</a>. <a title="patrons of deacons" href="http://catholic-forum.com/saints/pst00199.htm">Deacon</a>. <a title="patrons of preachers" href="http://catholic-forum.com/saints/pst00578.htm">Preacher</a>. All we know of him is related in the Acts of the Apostles. While preaching the Gospel in the streets, angry Jews who believed his message to be blasphemy dragged him outside the city, and stoned him to death. In the crowd, on the side of the mob, was a man who would later be known as Saint <a title="patron saints index entry for Saint Paul the Apostle" href="http://catholic-forum.com/saints/saintp12.htm">Paul</a>.<br />Born<br />unknown<br />Died<br /><a title="patrons of martyrs" href="http://catholic-forum.com/saints/pst00808.htm">stoned to death</a> c.<a title="events of 33" href="http://catholic-forum.com/saints/year0033.htm">33</a><br />Canonized<br /><a title="definition of the term 'Pre-Congregation'" href="http://catholic-forum.com/saints/define88.htm">Pre-Congregation</a><br />Name Meaning<br /><a title="New Catholic Dictionary entry for 'crown'" href="http://catholic-forum.com/saints/ncd02464.htm">crown</a><br />Patronage<br /><a title="patrons of the Acoma Indian Pueblo, archdiocese of Santa Fe" href="http://catholic-forum.com/saints/pst02103.htm">Acoma Indian Pueblo</a>; <a title="patrons of coffin makers" href="http://catholic-forum.com/saints/pst01244.htm">casket makers</a>; <a title="patrons of Cetona, Italy" href="http://catholic-forum.com/saints/pst02185.htm">Cetona, Italy</a>; <a title="patrons of coffin makers" href="http://catholic-forum.com/saints/pst01244.htm">coffin makers</a>; <a title="patrons of deacons" href="http://catholic-forum.com/saints/pst00199.htm">deacons</a>; <a title="patrons of headaches" href="http://catholic-forum.com/saints/pst00353.htm">headaches</a>; <a title="patrons of horses" href="http://catholic-forum.com/saints/pst00363.htm">horses</a>; <a title="patrons of Kessel, Germany" href="http://catholic-forum.com/saints/pst01883.htm">Kessel, Germany</a>; <a title="patrons of masons" href="http://catholic-forum.com/saints/pst00459.htm">masons</a>; <a title="New Catholic Dictionary entry for 'diocese'" href="http://catholic-forum.com/saints/ncd02722.htm">diocese</a> of <a title="patrons of the diocese of Owensboro, Kentucky, USA" href="http://catholic-forum.com/saints/pst01220.htm">Owensboro Kentucky</a>; <a title="patrons of Passau, Germany" href="http://catholic-forum.com/saints/pst02043.htm">Passau, Germany</a>; <a title="patrons of Prato, Italy" href="http://catholic-forum.com/saints/pst01998.htm">Prato, Italy</a>; <a title="patrons of stone masons" href="http://catholic-forum.com/saints/pst00459.htm">stone masons</a><br />Representation<br /><a title="patrons of deacons" href="http://catholic-forum.com/saints/pst00199.htm">deacon</a> carrying a pile of rocks; <a title="patrons of deacons" href="http://catholic-forum.com/saints/pst00199.htm">deacon</a> with rocks gathered in his vestments; <a title="patrons of deacons" href="http://catholic-forum.com/saints/pst00199.htm">deacon</a> with rocks on his head; <a title="patrons of deacons" href="http://catholic-forum.com/saints/pst00199.htm">deacon</a> with rocks or a book at hand; stones; palm of <a title="patrons of martyrs" href="http://catholic-forum.com/saints/pst00808.htm">martyrdom</a><br />Images<br /><a title="gallery of images of Saint Stephen" href="http://catholic-forum.com/saints/sts04003.htm">Gallery</a> of images of Saint Stephen [4 images, 69 kb]<br />Storefront<br /><a title="commercial links related to Saint Stephen" href="http://www.aquinasandmore.com/index.cfm/saint/Stephen/fuseaction/store.PatronSaintSearchResults/patronsaint/76/index.htm/affiliate/PatronSaints3778/">Commercial Links</a> related to Saint Stephen<br />Additional Information<br /><a href="http://catholic-forum.com/saints/gdi207.htm">Goffine's Devout Instructions</a><a href="http://catholic-forum.com/saints/golden141.htm">Golden Legend</a>, by <a title="patron saints index entry for Blessed Jacobus de Voragine" href="http://catholic-forum.com/saints/saintj1s.htm">Jacobus de Voragine</a><a href="http://www.albany.net/~ststeph">Saint Stephen's Church</a> of Schenectady, NY<a href="http://www.catholic.org/saints/saint.php?saint_id=137">Catholic Online</a><a href="http://www.domestic-church.com/CONTENT.DCC/19971201/SAINTS/STSTEVN.HTM">Domestic Church</a>,<a href="http://catholic-forum.com/saints/sts04002.htm">Lives of the Saints</a>, by <a title="patrons of priests" href="http://catholic-forum.com/saints/pst00580.htm">Father</a> <a title="New Catholic Dictionary entry for 'Alban Butler'" href="http://catholic-forum.com/saints/ncd01519.htm">Alban Butler</a><a href="http://catholic-forum.com/saints/sts04004.htm">Catholic Encyclopedia</a><a href="http://catholic-forum.com/saints/sts04005.htm">Acts 6:1-15; 7:51-60</a><br />Translate<br /><a href="javascript:translate(">español</a> <a href="javascript:translate(">français</a> <a href="javascript:translate(">deutsch</a> <a href="javascript:translate(">italiano</a> <a href="javascript:translate(">português</a><br />Readings<br />At that time, as the number of disciples continued to grow, the Hellenists complained against the Hebrews because their widows were being neglected in the daily distribution. So the Twelve called together the community of the disciples and said, "It is not right for us to neglect the word of God to serve at table. Brothers, select from among you seven reputable men, filled with the Spirit and wisdom, whom we shall appoint to this task, whereas we shall devote ourselves to prayer and to the ministry of the word." The proposal was acceptable to the whole community, so they chose Stephen, a man filled with faith and the <a title="New Catholic Dictionary entry for 'Holy Ghost'" href="http://catholic-forum.com/saints/ncd03980.htm">Holy Spirit</a>.... Now Stephen, filled with grace and power, was working great wonders and signs among the people. Certain members of the so-called Synagogue of Freedmen, Cyrenians, and Alexandrians, and people from Cilicia and Asia, came forward and debated with Stephen, but they could not withstand the wisdom and the spirit with which he spoke. Then they instigated some men to say, "We have heard him speaking blasphemous words against Moses and God." They stirred up the people, the elders, and the scribes, accosted him, seized him, and brought him before the <a title="New Catholic Dictionary entry for 'Sanhedrin'" href="http://catholic-forum.com/saints/ncd07599.htm">Sanhedrin</a>. They presented false witnesses who testified, "This man never stops saying things against (this) holy place and the law. For we have heard him claim that this Jesus the Nazorean will destroy this place and change the customs that Moses handed down to us." All those who sat in the <a title="New Catholic Dictionary entry for 'Sanhedrin'" href="http://catholic-forum.com/saints/ncd07599.htm">Sanhedrin</a> looked intently at him and saw that his face was like the face of an angel. Stephen preaches to the <a title="New Catholic Dictionary entry for 'Sanhedrin'" href="http://catholic-forum.com/saints/ncd07599.htm">Sanhedrin</a>, concluding: "You stiff-necked people, uncircumcised in heart and ears, you always oppose the <a title="New Catholic Dictionary entry for 'Holy Ghost'" href="http://catholic-forum.com/saints/ncd03980.htm">Holy Spirit</a>; you are just like your ancestors. Which of the prophets did your ancestors not persecute? They put to death those who foretold the coming of the righteous one, whose betrayers and murderers you have now become. You received the law as transmitted by angels, but you did not observe it." When they heard this, they were infuriated, and they ground their teeth at him. But he, filled with the <a title="New Catholic Dictionary entry for 'Holy Ghost'" href="http://catholic-forum.com/saints/ncd03980.htm">Holy Spirit</a>, looked up intently to heaven and saw the glory of God and Jesus standing at the right hand of God, and he said, "Behold, I see the heavens opened and the Son of Man standing at the right hand of God." But they cried out in a loud voice, covered their ears, and rushed upon him together. They threw him out of the city, and began to stone him. The witnesses laid down their <a title="New Catholic Dictionary entry for 'cloak'" href="http://catholic-forum.com/saints/ncd02110.htm">cloaks</a> at the feet of a young man named Saul. As they were stoning Stephen, he called out, "Lord Jesus, receive my spirit." Then he fell to his knees and cried out in a loud voice, "Lord, do not hold this sin against them"; and when he said this, he fell asleep. - Acts 6:1-15, 7:51-60<br />Yesterday we celebrated the birth in time of our eternal King. Today we celebrate the triumphant suffering of his soldier. Yesterday our king, clothed in his robe of flesh, left his place in the virgin's womb and graciously visited the world. Today his soldier leaves the tabernacle of his body and goes triumphantly to heaven. Our king, despite his exalted majesty, came in humility for our sake; yet he did not come empty-handed. He gave of his bounty, yet without any loss to himself. In a marvelous way he changed into wealth the poverty of his faithful followers while remaining in full possession of his own inexhaustible riches. And so the love that brought Christ from heaven to earth raised Stephen from earth ot heaven; shown first in the king, it later shone forth in his soldier. His love of God kept him from yielding to the ferocious mob; his love for his neighbor made him pray for those who were stoning him. Love inspired him to reprove those who erred, to make them amend; love led him to pray for those who stoned him, to save them from punishment. Love, indeed, is the source of all good things; it is an impregnable defense, and the way that leads to heaven. He who walks in love can neither go astray nor be afraid: love guides him, protects him, and brings him to his journey's end. My brothers, Christ made love the stairway that would enable all Christians to climb to heaven. Hold fast to it, therefore, in all sincerity, give one another practical proof of it, and by your progress in it, make your ascent together. from a sermon by Saint <a title="patron saints index entry for Saint Fulgentius of Ruspe" href="http://catholic-forum.com/saints/saintf34.htm">Fulgentius of Ruspe</a><br />From early times this saint was venerated as patron of horses. A poem of the tenth century pictures him as the owner of a horse and dramatically relates how Christ Himself miraculously cured the animal for His beloved Disciple. Though there is no historical basis for this association with horses in the life of Saint Stephen, various explanations have been attempted. Some are founded on ancient Germanic ritual celebrations of horse sacrifices at Yuletide. Others use the fact that in medieval times "Twelfth Night" (Christmas to Epiphany) was a time of rest for domestic animals, and horses, as the most useful servants of man, were accorded at the beginning of this fortnight something like a feast day of their own. It was a general practice among the farmers in Europe to decorate their horses on Stephen's Day, and bring them to the house of God to be blessed by the priest and afterward ridden three times around the church, a custom still observed in many rural sections. Later in the day the whole family takes a gay ride in a wagon or sleigh (Saint Stephen's ride). In Sweden, the holy <a title="patrons of deacons" href="http://catholic-forum.com/saints/pst00199.htm">deacon</a> was changed by early legend into the figure of a native saint, a stable boy who is said to have been killed by the <a title="New Catholic Dictionary entry for 'pagan'" href="http://catholic-forum.com/saints/ncd06240.htm">pagans</a> in Helsingland. His name -- Staffan -- reveals the original saint. The "Staffan Riders" parade through the towns of Sweden on December 26, singing their ancient carols in honor of the "Saint of Horses." Horses' food, mostly hay and oats, is blessed on Stephen's Day. Inspired by pre-Christmas fertility rites people thrown kernels of these blessed oats at one another and at their domestic animals. In sections of Poland they even toss oats at the priest after Mass. Popular legends say this custom is an imitation of stoning, performed in honor of the saint's martyrdom. The ancient fertility rite, however, can still be clearly recognized in the Polish custom of boys and girls throwing walnuts at each other on Saint Stephen's Day. In the past centuries water and salt were blessed on this day and kept by farmers to be fed to their horses in case of sickness. Women also baked special breads in the form of horseshoes (Saint Stephen's horns: podkovy) which were eaten on <a title="feasts and memorials of 26 December" href="http://catholic-forum.com/saints/day1226.htm">December 26</a>. In some parts of the British Isles, Saint Stephen's Day is the occasion for boys (the Wren Boys) to go from house to house, one of them carrying a dead wren on a branch decorated with all kinds of gay, streaming ribbons. Stopping in front of each door they sing a song and receive little gifts in return. The wren is "stoned" to death in memory of <a title="New Catholic Dictionary entry for 'saints'" href="http://catholic-forum.com/saints/ncd07466.htm">Saint</a> Stephen's <a title="patrons of martyrs" href="http://catholic-forum.com/saints/pst00808.htm">martyrdom</a>. Actually, though, this represents a relic of the ancient Druidic sacrifice of wrens at the time of the winter solstice."Duke Eversmeyerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12979421184987312497noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7936381627778855349.post-57577892654255420492008-01-30T18:19:00.000-08:002008-02-04T18:19:16.628-08:00Lesson 17 James Brother of JesusThere is some question as to exactly how many men bore the name James in the New Testament, but there were three who figured prominently in the ministry of Christ and the history of the early church. They were James the son of Zebedee and brother of John and an apostle (Matthew 4:21; 10:2; Mark 1:19; Luke 5:10), James the Less, son of Alphaeus and also an apostle (Matthew 10:3; Acts 1:13) and James the brother of our Lord (Matthew 13:35; Mark 6:3; Galatians 1:18, 19). Jesus had three other brothers in addition to James. They were Joses, Simon and Judas (Matthew 13:55). The Lord's sisters are also mentioned, but not by name (Matthew 13:56). We are not told how many sisters he may have had, but there must have been at least two. Roman Catholics, because of their belief in the perpetual virginity of Mary, argue that those who are mentioned as the brothers and sisters of our Lord were his cousins, or stepbrothers and sisters, children of Joseph from a previous marriage. There is absolutely no support for this idea in the Bible.<br /> James, like the Lord's other siblings, was not supportive of Jesus during his early ministry. The apostle John makes the point that even his own brothers did not believe in him (John 7:5). However, that was to change. Among those disciples who were found with the apostles in Jerusalem following the Lord's ascension were his brothers, which obviously included James, who was to later play a prominent role in the Jerusalem church (Acts 1:14).<br /> According to Paul, an inspired apostle, Jesus appeared to James following his resurrection (1 Corinthians 15:7). Jerome, a fourth century Christian author, records a legend which says that James had made a vow to not eat or drink until he had seen Jesus raised from the dead. Supposedly, Jesus appeared to James and said, "My brother, eat thy bread, for the Son of man is risen from the dead" (F. W. Farrar, The Pulpit Commentary, Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1950, Vol. 19, p. 484). As already noted, before the crucifixion, his brothers were unbelievers. It was the resurrection of Jesus which brought them to faith.<br /> James became a leading figure in the church at Jerusalem. When Peter was released from prison he came to the house of Mary where many in the church had come together to pray for him (Acts 12:12). According to Peter's account of that evening, the Lord had instructed him to tell James and the brethren of his prison escape, which Peter then did (Acts 12:17).<br /> When the controversy arose over certain Judaizers who were demanding the circumcision of Gentle Christians, Paul and Barnabas met in Jerusalem with the apostles and elders, and James played a significant role in that meeting (Acts 15:13-21). It was James who reminded them of Peter's encounter with Cornelius and how the Gentiles were to be brought into the kingdom. He further argued that this was in agreement with what the prophets had predicted. He then recommended they write a letter to Gentile churches in which they would be told to "abstain from pollutions of idols, and from fornication, and from things strangled, and from blood" (Acts 15:20). The apostles, elders and the whole church agreed, and it was done.<br /> Following Paul's third missionary tour, he returned to Jerusalem. One day after his arrival in the city he reported to James and the elders what God had accomplished through him among the Gentiles (Acts 21:18-25). It is not surprising that James is again singled out among those in the church at Jerusalem. It was Paul who referred to James, along with Peter and John, as pillars in the church who had extended to him and Barnabas the right hand of fellowship, and encouraged their work among the Gentiles (Galatians 2:9-10).<br /> But, it is for the New Testament epistle which bears his name that James is most remembered. This epistle offered such a devastating blow to the doctrine of salvation by faith only or alone that Martin Luther refused to accept it as canonical, and referred to it as "right strawy" and thus of no value. Paul had written that Abraham was justified by faith (Romans 3:28). James asserted that Abraham was justified by works (James 2:23-24). But, the passages were not contradictory as Luther believed. Rather, they were complementary. Together they underscored the necessity of a living faith which always produces active obedience. This idea is plainly set forth in Hebrews 11 where believers were commended for demonstrating faith through action or deeds. Abel's faith produced an acceptable sacrifice. Enoch's faith led to a walk with God. Noah's faith built an ark. Abraham's faith caused him to pack up and move at God's bidding, and, ultimately led him to the point where, at God's command, he was prepared to offer his son, Isaac. Both Paul and James understood the relationship between faith and works (obedience) in regard to man's relationship with God. Luther, however, did not!<br /> Other themes which James touched upon in his epistle included the nature of temptation and its source (1:2-18); pure religion (1:19-27); the dangers of the tongue (3:1-12); true and false wisdom (3:13-18); the source of discord among brethren (4:1-10); the future and how to face it (4:11-17); the dangers of wealth (5:1-6); and patience, prayer and confession (5:7-20). Addressed to the twelve tribes of the dispersion, it was among the most practical epistles of the New Testament.<br />According to Josephus, the high priest, Ananus (his father was also called Ananus), a man bold in temperament and very indolent, convened the judges of the Sanhedrin and brought before them a man called James, the brother of Jesus who was called the Christ, and certain others. He accused them of having transgressed the law and delivered them up to be stoned (Flavius Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, page 598).<br /> Hegesippus, a second century writer, says that James was thrown down from the pinnacle of the temple, stoned, and finally killed by a fuller's club (Jack P. Lewis, Historical Backgrounds of Bible History, page 141).<br /> Although at first unwilling to accept Jesus as the Son of God, James came to be a staunch believer and a respected leader in the early church. Ultimately, he died for his faith.<br />James the brother of Jesus is named in Matthew 13:55 and Mark 6:3, along with three other brothers (Joseph [or "Joses"], Simon and Judas [Jude]) and at least three sisters unnamed (the most explicit reference to these sisters in the canon being found in Matthew 13:56, "Aren't all his sisters with us?").<br />The Gospels indicate that neither James nor his brothers were followers of their elder brother before his crucifixion, but after the resurrection they are mentioned among the group at prayer before Pentecost (<a title=" Read the passage " href="http://www.gnpcb.org/esv/search/?q=Acts+1:14&go=Search" target="_blank">Acts 1:14</a>). Paul mentions that the risen Jesus appeared personally to James, which may explain the change in heart (<a title=" Read the passage " href="http://www.gnpcb.org/esv/search/?q=1Cor+15:7&go=Search" target="_blank">1 Cor. 15:7</a>).<br />It seems that James quickly took the lead of the Church in Jerusalem, officiating at the Council of Jerusalem, thus he is viewed as one who did not oppose the lack of Jewish restrictions of Gentile believers.<br />In his letter to the Galatians, Paul mentions James along with John son of Zebedee, and Peter as the Pillars of the Church (<a title=" Read the passage " href="http://www.gnpcb.org/esv/search/?q=gal+2:9&go=Search" target="_blank">2:9</a>).<br />James was well enough known that in the New Testament <a href="http://www.1way2god.net/james.html" target="_self">epistle carrying his name</a>, he refers to himself simply as "James, a servant of God and the Lord Jesus Christ" (<a title=" Read the passage " href="http://www.gnpcb.org/esv/search/?q=James+1:1&go=Search" target="_blank">James 1:1</a>). To further evidence that James was well-known, Jude (the youngest of Jesus' brothers) simply identifies himself as James' brother, and a servant of the Lord in <a href="http://www.1way2god.net/jude.html" target="_self">his letter</a> (<a title=" Read the passage " href="http://www.gnpcb.org/esv/search/?q=Jude+1&go=Search" target="_blank">Jude 1</a>). (See "author" section in <a href="http://www.1way2god.net/jude.html" target="_self">Jude</a> for why the brothers didn't identify themselves as the brothers of Jesus.)<br />In 61 AD James was executed at the instigation of the high priest Ananus. In the following centuries legends developed surrounding James, none of which are very reliable, but included the possibility that he was known as "James the Just" due to his amazing (Jewish) piety. Recently a burial box is said to have been found containing the bones of James, and giving further evidence to the existence of Jesus (as the inscription on the box reads: "James, son of Joseph, brother of Jesus"), but it has been found to have been an elaborate fake. (See original story from the Biblical Archaeology Society <a href="http://www.bib-arch.org/bswb_BAR/bswbbar2806f1.html" target="_blank">here</a> and a CNN review of some later findings <a href="http://www.cnn.com/2003/TECH/science/06/18/jesus.box/index.html" target="_blank">here</a>.)<br />His epistle is well-known for its seeming anti-Pauline theology: "...a person is justified by what he does and not by faith alone" (<a title=" Read the passage " href="http://www.gnpcb.org/esv/search/?q=James+2:24&go=Search" target="_blank">James 2:24</a>). However, it is clear when read in context, that James was arguing against the belief (or similar) that faith and a total disregard for a faithful life was sufficient for salvation through Christ. Rather, James says, "Show me your faith without works and I'll show you my faith by what I do" (<a title=" Read the passage " href="http://www.gnpcb.org/esv/search/?q=james+2:18&go=Search" target="_blank">2:18</a>).<br />James' point is that salvation is by faith over and above all else, but true faith will be expressed through actions - how can you say that you believe in God yet totally ignore him, trusting that your belief that the Cross had saving power is enough? You can't. In this way then, a person is justified by what they do, as an expression of their faith.<br />Interest in Jesus’ brother Ya‘aqov, Anglicized as "James," is flourishing. Among recent contributions, one might mention a presentation of texts and analysis by Wilhelm Pratscher,1 a semi-popular treatment by Pierre-Antoine Bernheim,2 and a careful, innovative contribution from Richard Bauckham.3 These books represent vigorous attempts to recover a critical portrait of James. They all respond, directly and indirectly, to the controversial thesis of Robert H. Eisenman, who has argued over a number of years that James is to be identified with the righteous teacher of Qumran.4 Among the many and vehement responses to that thesis, perhaps the most mature and effective is that of John Painter.5<br /> Recovery of interest in James is a useful corrective in both historical and theological terms, in that his place within primitive Christianity had been all but eclipsed by the influence of Paulinism in its many forms. The vehemence of response to Eisenman’s thesis, quite apart from the specific questions it raises (exegetical, historical, and even archaeological), might best be explained on theological grounds. A silent James is, after all, more easily accommodated to the picture of a smooth transition between Jesus and Paul than is a James who (as in Eisenman’s reconstruction) substantially contradicts both Paul and Jesus.<br /> Within this debate, a well defined set of issues has been perennially in play:6<br />was James really Jesus’ brother?<br />was James sympathetic to Jesus prior to the resurrection?<br />did James require circumcision of males along with baptism by way of initiation into the movement of Jesus?<br />was there any substantial place for non-Jews within James’ understanding of the covenant with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob?<br />did James oppose a Pauline teaching of salvation by grace with an insistence upon obedience to the Torah?<br />was James the most prominent person in Jesus’ movement between the resurrection and his own death?<br /> None of the treatments already cited above fails to take a stand on each of these issues, and for the most part each issue is also responsibly engaged in those and other discussions. Of the six questions here cited, only one is easily dismissed on the basis of the evidence to hand. But even that, the third question—and the old canard that James required circumcision of all believers—continues to exert so great an influence in popular and scholarly discussion that it should be addressed here.<br /> In what follows, we will work through the six questions to a conclusion, reviewing major primary sources as we proceed, and articulating what I take to be coherent assessments of the secondary literature in the positions which are staked out. The basis of my evaluation has largely been developed during meetings of "the Consultation on James," which I have chaired on behalf of the Institute of Advanced Theology. But the Consultation itself speaks through its own publications,7 and often expresses out ranges of agreement and disagreement, rather than set findings (in the manner, say of "the Jesus Seminar"), so that judgments expressed here are not attributable to other members of the Consultation.<br /> None of the primary documents at issue is claimed by most scholars to have come directly from James himself. His views are attested even more indirectly than his brother’s. But the case of Jesus sheds light by way of analogy on James: for all that a Jesus of history is not "in" our sources, there is no doubt but that there is a Jesus of literary history behind them.<br /> That is, the Gospels (as well as other documents) refer back to Jesus as their point of generation, and we may infer what practices Jesus engaged in, what beliefs he adhered to, so as to produce the accounts concerning him in the communities of followers which produced the documents. The framing world of those practices and beliefs in the formative period of the New Testament (whether in the case of Jesus or his followers) was Judaism. Practices and beliefs are attested in the documents manifestly, whether or not their attribution to Jesus is accepted, and that is a suitable point of departure for the genuinely critical question of Jesus. That question cannot be formulated as, What did Jesus really say and really do? The critical issue is rather, What role did Jesus play in the evolution of practices and beliefs in his name?8<br /> That generative question may be broadened, of course, to apply not only to Jesus and the Gospels, but also to primitive Christianity and the New Testament.9 In the present case, that involves specifying the practices and beliefs that attach to James within the sources, and seeking to understand his place within them. Not every practice, not every belief may be assumed to be correctly attributed to James, but the various streams of tradition the documents represent do come together to constitute stable associations of practices and beliefs with James. The nodal issues of practices and beliefs, not "facts," represent our point of departure.<br /> was James really Jesus’ brother?<br /> The point of departure for considering this question is Mark 6:3 (cf. Matthew 13:55-56), where James is actually named as Jesus’ brother, along with four other men; at least two unnamed and unenumerated sisters are also mentioned. Until recently, Roman Catholic opinion has been dominated by the position of St. Jerome (in his controversial work, Against Helvidius), who argued that although "brothers" and "sisters" are the terms used in Greek, the reference is actually to cousins. Dispute has focused on the issue of whether that view can be sustained linguistically, and on the whole the finding has been negative. Before Jerome, Helvidius himself had maintained during the fourth century that the brothers and sisters were just what their name implies—siblings of Jesus: although he had been born of a virgin, their father was Joseph and their mother was Mary. That view clearly played havoc with the emerging doctrine of Mary’s virginity after Jesus’ birth, and that issue occupied the center of attention. In a recent work which received the Imprimatur, John P. Meier has endorsed the Helvidian theory, to some extent on the basis of support from second century Fathers.10 During that century, a group referred to as the Ebionites even denied Jesus’ virgin birth in the technical sense; his "brothers" and "sisters" were implicitly that in the full sense of those words (see Irenaeus, Against Heresies 1.26.1-2).<br /> Richard Bauckham has given new currency to the view of Jesus’ relationship to James developed by Epiphanius during the fourth century (Panarion 1.29.3-4; 2.66.19; 3.78.7, 9, 13), and supported by the second-century Protoevanglium of James 9.2 and perhaps the Gospel of Peter (according to Origen’s Commentary on Matthew 10:17):11 Mary was Jesus’ mother, not James’, since Joseph had a wife prior to his marriage to Mary. Joseph’s relatively advanced age is traditionally held to account for his early departure from the narrative scene of the Gospels, and that reasonable inference lends support to this theory, while James’ emphasis on the Davidic identity of the Church (see Acts 15:16) is easily accommodated on this view. James’ seniority relative to Jesus might be reflected in the parable of the prodigal (Luke 15:11-32). The story of those with Jesus seizing him in the midst of exorcism (Mark 3:21; cf. 3:31-35) reflects the kind of almost parental concern an older brother might feel for a younger brother.<br /> Another, more pragmatic consideration provides support for Epiphanius’ theory, although in a modified form. As mentioned, Joseph disappears from the scene of the Gospels from when Jesus was about twelve years old. His death at that time has been the traditional surmise, and such a chronology has implications for understanding Jesus’ relationships with his siblings. On the Helvidian view, Mary must have given birth to at least seven children in twelve years (Jesus, his brothers, and two or more sisters). Assuming that not every child she gave birth to survived infancy, more than seven labors would be required during that period, all this within a culture that confined women after childbirth and prohibited intercourse with a woman with a flow of blood, and despite the acknowledged prophylactic effect of lactation and Joseph’s age.<br /> Although the consideration of a likely rate of fertility provides some support to the Epiphanian theory, in its unadulterated form it strains credulity in its own way. A widower with at least six children already in tow is not perhaps the best candidate for marriage with a young bride. A modified form of the theory (a hybrid with Helvidius’ suggestion) would make James and Joses the products of Joseph’s previous marriage, and Jesus, Simon and Judah the sons of Joseph with Mary. The latter three sons have names notably associated with a zealous regard for the honor of Israel, and may reflect the taste of a common mother. Absent their names, or even a count of how many were involved, no such assignment of marriages can be attempted for Jesus’ sisters.<br /> On the Helvidian view, James was Jesus’ younger and full brother, in a family quickly produced whose siblings were close in age. On the Epiphanian view, James was older, and Jesus’ half brother, it seems to me that, suitably modified, Epiphanius provides the more plausible finding.<br /> was James sympathetic to Jesus prior to the resurrection?<br /> The Gospels, when they refer to James at all, do so with no great sympathy. He is listed at the head of Jesus’ brothers in the Synoptic Gospels, but in a statement of a crowd in Nazareth which is skeptical that one whose family they know can be responsible for wonders (Mark 6:1-6; Matthew 13:53-58). In John, he is presumably included among the unnamed brothers who argued with Jesus about his refusal to go to Jerusalem for a feast (John 7:2-10), and James is also referred to anonymously in the Synoptics as among the brothers whom, even with his mother, Jesus refused to interrupt his teaching in order to greet (Mark 3:31-35; Matthew 12:46-50; Luke 8:19-21). The most plausible inference would be that Jesus and James were somehow at odds during this period, but personal animosity is scarcely provable. The real breaking point came with everyone at Nazareth at the attempted stoning there (Luke 4:16-30), which seems to have made Jesus negative about his own family.<br /> On the other hand, James is recognized within the earliest list of those to whom the risen Jesus appeared (1 Corinthians 15:7), and—closely associated with the Temple—he quickly emerged as the dominant figure in the Jesus movement. Taken together, that would suggest that, by the end of Jesus’ life, during his last pilgrimage to Jerusalem, James and his brother had reconciled. Aside from Paul’s reference to James in his list of witnesses to the resurrection, the New Testament does not record an actual appearance to James, but the non-canonical Gospel of the Hebrews does. There, Jesus assures his brother that "the Son of Man has been raised from among those who sleep" (cited by Jerome, Liber de Viris Illustribus 2). This vision occurs after James had fasted in consequence of his brother’s death. The authority of James, it seems, was a key force in the complete identification between Jesus and the figure of one like a son of man Daniel 7 (see also Hegesippus, as cited by Eusebius in his History 2.23.1-18)—an angelic figure in the heavenly court—after the resurrection.<br /> did James require circumcision of males along with baptism by way of initiation into the movement of Jesus?<br /> Acts attributes to James (and to James alone) the power to decide whether non-Jewish male converts in Antioch needed to be circumcised. He determines that they do not. Under the influence of the thesis of F.C. Bauer, it is sometimes assumed that James required circumcision of all such converts,12 but that requirement is attributed to Christian Pharisees in Acts (15:5), not to James. Nonetheless, James does proceed to command non-Jewish Christians to observe certain requirements of purity (so Acts 15:1-35). That may explain why emissaries from James make their appearance as villains in Paul’s description of a major controversy at Antioch. They insisted on a separate meal-fellowship of Jews and non-Jews, while Paul with more than equal insistence (but apparently little or no success) argued for the unity of Jewish and non-Jewish fellowship within the Church (Galatians 1:18-2:21). How precisely James came to such a position of prominence is not explained in Acts; his apostolic status was no doubt assured by the risen Jesus’ appearance to him.<br /> Like Josephus (Antiquities 20.9.1 §§ 197-203), Hegesippus (in concert with Clement, Eusebius reports) portrays James as killed by Ananus at the Temple. In addition, Hegesippus describes James in terms which emphasize his purity in such a way that, as in Acts, his association with the Nazirite vow is evident (cf. Acts 21:17-36). James’ capacity to win the reverence of many Jews in Jerusalem (not only his brother’s followers) derives from this practice and his encouragement of others in the practice. The fact is frequently overlooked, but needs to be emphasized, that the Mishnah envisages the Nazarite practice of slaves, as well as Israelites, both male and female (see Nazir 9:1). James’ focus was purity in the Temple under the aegis of his risen brother, the Son of Man, but there is no trace of his requiring circumcision of Gentiles. It needs to be kept in mind that Jesus himself had expelled traders from the Temple, not as some indiscriminate protest about commercialism, but as part of Zechariah’s prophecy (see Zechariah 14) of a day when all the peoples of the earth would be able to offer sacrifice to the LORD without the intervention of middlemen. James’ Nazirite practice realized that prophecy in his brother’s name.<br /> Josephus reports that James was killed in the Temple in 62 CE at the instigation of the high priest Ananus during the interregnum of the Roman governors Festus and Albinus (Antiquities 20.9.1 §§ 197-203). Hegesippus gives a more circumstantial, less politically informed, account of the martyrdom. James is set up on a parapet of the Temple, being known and addressed by his opponents by the titles "Righteous and Oblias," Hegesippus reports. The second title has caused understandable puzzlement (especially when Hegesippus rendering of the term as "bulwark" is accepted13), but it is easily related to the Aramaic term `abal, which means "to mourn." Recent finds in the vicinity of the Dead Sea (not only near Qumran) have greatly enhanced our understanding of Aramaic as spoken in the time of Jesus and his followers. The use of the term is attested there.14 James was probably known as "mourner."<br /> A minor tractate of the Talmud lays down the rule that a mourner (‘aval) "is under the prohibition to bathe, anoint [the body], put on sandals and cohabit" (Semachoth 4:1). This largely corresponds to the requirements of a Nazirite vow and to Hegesippus’ description of James’ practice; for Jesus himself to have called his brother "mourner" would fit in with his giving his followers nicknames. A tight association with the Temple on James’ part is attested throughout and from an early period, but not a universal requirement of circumcision.<br /> was there any substantial place for non-Jews within James’ understanding of the covenant with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob?<br /> Hegesippus’ account of James’ prominence is confirmed by Clement, who portrays James as the first elected bishop in Jerusalem (also cited by Eusebius, History 2.1.1-6), and by the pseudo-Clementine Recognitions, which makes James into an almost papal figure, providing the correct paradigm of preaching to Gentiles. Paul is so much the butt of this presentation that Recognitions [I.43-71] even relate that, prior to his conversion to Christianity, Saul assaulted physically James in the Temple. Martin Hengel refers to this presentation as an apostolic novel [Apostelroman], deeply influenced by the perspective of the Ebionites, and probably to be dated within the third and fourth centuries.15<br /> Yet even in Acts 15, the use of Scripture attributed to James, like the argument itself, is quite unlike Paul's. James claims that Peter’s baptism of non-Jews is to be accepted because "the words of the prophets agree, just as it is written" (Acts 15:15), and he goes on to cite from the book of Amos. The passage cited will concern us in a moment; the form of James’ interpretation is an immediate indication of a substantial difference from Paul. As James has it, there is actual agreement between Symeon and the words of the prophets, as two people might agree: the use of the verb sumphoneo is nowhere else in the New Testament used in respect of Scripture. The continuity of Christian experience with Scripture is marked as a greater concern than within Paul's interpretation, and James expects that continuity to be verbal, a matter of agreement with the prophets' words, not merely with possible ways of looking at what they mean.<br /> The citation from Amos (9:11-12, from the version of the Septuagint, which was the Bible of Luke-Acts) comports well with James’ concern that the position of the Church agree with the principal vocabulary of the prophets (Acts 15:16-17):<br />After this I will come back and restore the tent of David which has fallen, and rebuild its ruins and set it up anew, that the rest of men may seek the Lord, and all the Gentiles upon whom my name is called . . .<br />In the argument of James as represented here, what the belief of Gentiles achieves is, not the redefinition of Israel (as in Paul's thought), but the restoration of the house of David. The argument is possible because a Davidic genealogy of Jesus—and, therefore, of his brother James—is assumed.<br /> did James oppose a Pauline teaching of salvation by grace with an insistence upon obedience to the Torah?<br /> It is true that the Epistle of James sets out an elaborate argument—including a reading of Genesis 22 with seems to contradict Paul’s—to the effect that faith without works is dead, (see James 14-26 and Romans 4). But the Epistle does not set out Paul’s position in anything like detail; as Peter Davids has remarked, "There is no sense of the Pauline tension between faith and Torah piety, for James' community is in a different context."16 Paul is without doubt the most prominent explorer of that tension, but his position is subtler than what is refuted in the Epistle of James. That is no surprise, since Paul himself had to correct antinomian readings of his own views among those sympathetic to him (see 1 Corinthians 5-6). The Pastoral Epistles and 2 Peter 3:15-16 suggest this difficulty grew over time.<br /> The dating of the Epistle of James, and particularly the question whether it was written before or after the destruction of the Temple in 70 CE, continues to cause controversy. But the sense of social crisis reflected in the Epistle is unmistakable, as well as its urgent expectation of Jesus’ parousia (James 5:7-8, cf. 2 Peter 3:4, 12). But if we think back to Hegesippus’ description of James’ ethos, that is not surprising. With the threat to the very possibility of sacrificial worship in the Temple (whether after its destruction or in the turbulent conditions which preceded that trauma), a fundamental aspect of James’ position was compromised, an aspect with which Paul himself could agree (as Acts 21:16-36 Romans 15:16 suggest). What remained was Jesus’ identity as the Son of Man, and the challenge to James’ theology (before or after his own death) was to maintain and even enhance that identity, as worship in the Temple became increasingly problematic. In that context, whether James happened to have agreed with Paul in a doctrine that Paul had articulated in quite a different context appears a secondary concern.<br /> was James the most prominent person in Jesus’ movement between the resurrection and his own death?<br /> It is telling that, in his attempt to draw together the material relating to James, Jerome cites the Gospel according to the Hebrews alongside the New Testament, Hegesippus, and Josephus. The conflation attests the fragmentary nature of the references, as well as the appearance they give of having been spun out of one another, or out of cognate traditions. For all that use of these sources is unavoidable, as the necessary point of departure for any discussion of James, they all make James into an image which comports with their own programs. The Gospels’ James is kept at bay so as not to deflect attention from Jesus until the resurrection, when James implicitly or explicitly (in the case of Paul and the Gospel according to the Hebrews) becomes an important witness; the James of Acts reconciles the Church within a stance which leads on to the position of Paul; Paul’s James divides the Church; Josephus relates James’ death to illustrate the bloody mindedness of Ananus, the high priest; Hegesippus does so to illustrate the righteousness of James and his community; Clement makes James the transitional figure of the apostolic tradition, and the Recognitions use and enhance that standing in order to attack the figure of Paul.<br /> Right the way through, James is deployed in these sources to assert what is held to be an authoritative construction of Jesus’ movement. Accordingly, he is marginalized (in the Gospels), appealed to as an authoritative witness (in Acts and Paul), criticized (in Paul), portrayed as a victim (by Josephus) or a hero (by Hegesippus), hailed as both a source of unity (by Clement and in the tradition of Acts) and the trump card to use against Paul (in the Recognitions). Everything that makes the figure of "the historical Jesus" in an historicist understanding problematic makes "the historical James" in that sense out of the question.<br /> James’ devotion to the Temple and to his brother as the Danielic Son of Man after the resurrection made him the most prominent Christian leader in Jerusalem. The practice of the Nazirite vow was his distinguishing feature, and his belief in his brother as the gate of heaven, the heavenly portal above the Temple, made him a figure to be revered and reviled in Judaism, depending upon one’s evaluation of Jesus. Among Christians, he promulgated his understanding of the establishment of the house of David by means of an interpretation reminiscent of the Essenes, although he insisted that baptized, uncircumcised non-Jews had an ancillary role. As the bishop or overseer (mebaqqer, in the Dead Sea Scrolls ) of his community, he exercised a function which entered the Greek language as episkopos, and the influence of his circle is attested in the New Testament and later literature (including the Gospel according to Thomas, the Apocryphon of James, the Protevangelium of James, the First and Second Apocalypse of James, the Gospel of Peter, the Apocalypse of Peter, the Kerygma Petrou, the Kerygmata Petrou, the Acts of Peter, the Letter of Peter to Philip, and the Act of Peter (ca 200 CE or later).<br /> Once James’ distinctive importance has been recognized, it is natural to ask: how great was his influence upon the earliest phase of primitive Christian and early Christian literature? It has been argued, for example, that passages within the Synoptic Gospels might well bear the stamp of James’ perspective. Within the narrative of Jesus’ passion in the Synoptics, only one passage makes the Last Supper correspond to Passover (Matthew 26:17-20; Mark 14:12-17; Luke 22:7-14), and that presentation conflicts with the Johannine and Pauline presentations. That would limit participation in the meal and in its commemoration to those circumcised, in the case of males (see Exodus 12:48), a move which would accord with James’ Israelite construction of the Church’s leadership.17 Similarly, the teaching attributed to Jesus in regard to vowing property as qorbana, a gift to the Temple, manifests an interest in and a familiarity with cultic institutions, as well as a style of exegesis associated with the pesharim of Qumran, which better accords with James than with Jesus (Matthew 15:1-20; Mark 7:1-23).18 Lastly, the story of the demons and the swine of Gergesa, with its emphasis on the impurity of non-Jews (Romans especially; Matthew 8:28-34; Mark 5:1-20; Luke 8:26-39) has been linked with a Jacobean cycle of tradition, and the secret knowledge of the demons that Jesus was Nazarenos, a Nazirite, is plausible linked to the same cycle.19<br /> Conclusion<br /> Within the terms of reference of early Judaism and primitive Christianity, no single issue can compare in importance to that of the Temple. The Nazirite practice attributed to James and those in contact with him provides a highly focused degree of devotion to the Temple. As usually practiced, of course, the social history of primitive Christianity and early Christianity has been Hellenistic in orientation. That is perfectly natural, given the actual provenience and language of the New Testament and the bulk of the corpus of Christianity in late antiquity. Still, social histories such as those of Wayne Meeks,20 Abraham Malherbe,21 and Dennis Smith and Hal Taussig22 have tended not to engage the sources of Judaism, and especially the Judaism of Aramaic and Hebrew sources, with the same vigor that has been applied to the Hellenistic dimension of analysis. That is perfectly understandable, given the particular documents they have dealt with, and the specific questions that they applied to those documents. But a figure such as James will simply remain a cipher, and in all probability a cipher for some form of Paulinism or another, as long as he is not located within the milieu which not only produced him, but which was embraced as a consciously chosen locus of devotion and activity. Many teachers associated with the movement of Jesus managed at least partially to avoid the Temple altogether; James is virtually found only there after the resurrection.<br /> The specificity of that location raises the issue of James’ relation to other forms of Christianity, to other forms of Judaism, and especially to those responsible for the operation of the Temple. Here, the analysis of James in socially historical terms comes closest to classic history in its specificity.<br /> Whether in the key of an emphasis on the "social" or the "historical" within socially historical analysis, what emerges from our consideration is a distinctive, cultic focus upon the validation of the covenant with Israel which blesses all nations on the authority of Jesus, understood in his resurrection to be identifiable with the "one like a son of man" of Daniel 7.Duke Eversmeyerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12979421184987312497noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7936381627778855349.post-35836877787337066962008-01-30T07:02:00.000-08:002008-12-09T04:33:13.092-08:00Aldersgate Weekend<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh9JjMEAptpNLb6N3udHdVvQQZs7iAw4I9yEq3XChoGTSJ5MDgsLuQeQJMsW_B9eLObk8VWZdZhe6k1AYYfWL9eK7KJZdrGFwJ2Oah381nSKA2eTUrAsvTXnQ5nFQv0EYpy610WPF9suXKq/s1600-h/Munholland60x60.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5161286122672208034" style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; CURSOR: hand; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh9JjMEAptpNLb6N3udHdVvQQZs7iAw4I9yEq3XChoGTSJ5MDgsLuQeQJMsW_B9eLObk8VWZdZhe6k1AYYfWL9eK7KJZdrGFwJ2Oah381nSKA2eTUrAsvTXnQ5nFQv0EYpy610WPF9suXKq/s400/Munholland60x60.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /><div><br /></div>Duke Eversmeyerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12979421184987312497noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7936381627778855349.post-60759840922604027102008-01-23T19:08:00.000-08:002008-01-23T19:10:55.202-08:00Lesson 16 Pontius PilatePontius Pilate ; <a title="Latin" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin">Latin</a>: Pontius Pilatus, <a title="Greek language" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language">Greek</a>: Πόντιος Πιλᾶτος) was the <a title="Roman governor" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_governor">governor</a> of the <a title="Roman Empire" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empire">Roman</a> <a title="Iudaea province" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iudaea_province">Iudaea province</a> from A.D. <a title="26" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/26">26</a> until <a title="36" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/36">36</a>. In modern times he is best known as the man who, according to the <a title="Biblical canon" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblical_canon">canonical</a> <a title="Christianity" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity">Christian</a> <a title="Gospel" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel">Gospels</a>, presided over the <a title="Sanhedrin Trial of Jesus" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanhedrin_Trial_of_Jesus">trial of Jesus</a> and ordered his <a title="Crucifixion" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crucifixion">crucifixion</a>. Pilate's biographical details before and after his appointment to Judaea are unknown, but have been supplied by tradition, which include the detail that his wife's name was <a title="Saint Procula" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Procula">Procula</a> (she is canonized as a <a title="Saint" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint">saint</a> in the <a title="Coptic Orthodox Church" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coptic_Orthodox_Church">Coptic Orthodox Church</a>) and competing legends of his birthplace.<br />Birthplace<br />Pilate's date and place of birth are unknown. <a title="Fortingall" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortingall">Fortingall</a> in <a title="Perthshire" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perthshire">Perthshire</a>, <a title="Scotland" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland">Scotland</a><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#_note-0">[1]</a>; Tarraco (now <a title="Tarragona" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarragona">Tarragona</a>) in <a title="Spain" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain">Spain</a>, and <a title="Forchheim (Oberfranken)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forchheim_%28Oberfranken%29">Forchheim</a> and its suburb Hausen in <a title="Germany" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany">Germany</a> have all developed local legends.[<a title="Wikipedia:Citation needed" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a>] The author of the Encyclopaedia Britannica 1911 article noted that Pontius suggested a <a title="Samnite" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samnite">Samnite</a> origin—among the Pontii—and his <a title="Cognomen" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognomen">cognomen</a> Pileatus, if it derived from the pileus or <a title="Phrygian cap" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phrygian_cap">cap of liberty</a>, descent from a <a title="Freedman" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedman">freedman</a>. He is commonly believed to be descended from <a title="Gaius Pontius" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaius_Pontius">Gaius Pontius</a>, a Samnite General.<br />Titles and duties<br />Pontius Pilate's title was traditionally thought to have been <a title="Promagistrate" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promagistrate">procurator</a>. <a title="Tacitus" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tacitus">Tacitus</a> speaks of him as such. However, an inscription on a limestone block — apparently a dedication to <a title="Tiberius Caesar Augustus" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiberius_Caesar_Augustus">Tiberius Caesar Augustus</a> — that was discovered in <a title="1961" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1961">1961</a> in the ruins of an amphitheater called <a title="Caesarea Maritima" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesarea_Maritima">Caesarea Maritima</a> refers to Pilate as "<a title="Prefect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prefect">Prefect</a> of Judea". <a title="Archaeology" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology">Archaeologists</a> believe it to be genuine and settles the argument about the historicity of Pontius Pilate. (See <a title="Pilate Stone" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilate_Stone">Pilate Stone</a>).<br />The title used by the governors of the region varied over the period of the <a title="New Testament" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Testament">New Testament</a>. When <a title="Samaria" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samaria">Samaria</a>, <a title="Judea" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judea">Judea</a> and <a title="Idumea" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idumea">Idumea</a> were first amalgamated into the Roman <a title="Iudaea Province" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iudaea_Province">Iudaea Province</a>, from <a title="6" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6">6</a> to the outbreak of the <a title="First Jewish Revolt" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Jewish_Revolt">First Jewish Revolt</a> in <a title="66" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/66">66</a>, officials of the <a title="Equestrian (Roman)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equestrian_%28Roman%29">Equestrian order</a> (the lower rank of governors) governed. They held the Roman title of prefect until <a title="Herod Agrippa I" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herod_Agrippa_I">Herod Agrippa I</a> was named King of the Jews by <a title="Claudius" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claudius">Claudius</a>. After Herod Agrippa's death in <a title="44" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/44">44</a>, when Judaea reverted to direct Roman rule, the governor held the title procurator. When applied to governors, this term procurator, otherwise used for financial officers, connotes no difference in rank or function from the title known as prefect. Contemporary archaeological finds and documents such as the Pilate Inscription from Caesarea attest to the governor's more accurate official title only for the period 6 through 44: <a title="Prefect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prefect">prefect</a>. The logical conclusion is that texts that identify Pilate as procurator are more likely following Tacitus or are unaware of the pre-44 practice.<br />The procurators' and prefects' primary functions were military, but as representatives of the empire they were responsible for the collection of imperial taxes,<a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#_note-1">[2]</a> and also had limited judicial functions. Other civil administration lay in the hands of local government: the municipal councils or ethnic governments such as — in the district of Judea and Jerusalem — the <a title="Sanhedrin" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanhedrin">Sanhedrin</a> and its president the <a title="List of High Priests of Israel" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_High_Priests_of_Israel">High Priest</a>. But the power of appointment of the High Priest resided in the Roman legate of <a title="Syria (Roman province)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria_%28Roman_province%29">Syria</a> or the prefect of Iudaea in Pilate's day and until <a title="41" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/41">41</a>. For example, <a title="Caiaphas" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caiaphas">Caiaphas</a> was appointed High Priest of <a title="Herod's Temple" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herod%27s_Temple">Herod's Temple</a> by Prefect Valerius Gratus and deposed by Syrian Legate <a title="Lucius Vitellius" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucius_Vitellius">Lucius Vitellius</a>. After that time and until 66, the Jewish client kings exercised this privilege. Normally, Pilate resided in Caesarea but traveled throughout the province, especially to <a title="Jerusalem" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>, in the course of performing his duties. During the <a title="Passover" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passover">Passover</a>, a festival of deep national as well as religious significance for the Jews, Pilate, as governor or prefect, would have been expected to be in Jerusalem to keep order. He would not ordinarily be visible to the throngs of worshippers because of the Jewish people's deep sensitivity to their status as a Roman province.<br />Equestrians such as Pilate could not command legionary forces, and so in military situations, he would have to yield to his superior, the legate of Syria, who would descend into Palestine with his legions as necessary. As governor of Judaea, Pilate would have small auxiliary forces of locally recruited soldiers stationed regularly in Caesarea and Jerusalem, such as the <a title="Antonia Fortress" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonia_Fortress">Antonia Fortress</a>, and temporarily anywhere else that might require a military presence. The total number of soldiers at his disposal numbered in the range of 3000.<a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#_note-2">[3]</a><br />Pilate according to early Jewish accounts<br />Most of the information about Pilate comes from the accounts of the first-century Jewish historian <a title="Josephus" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josephus">Josephus</a> in <a title="Antiquities of the Jews" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiquities_of_the_Jews">Antiquities of the Jews</a> and <a title="The Wars of the Jews" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wars_of_the_Jews">The Wars of the Jews</a>. Pilate is said to have displayed some empathy for <a title="Jew" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jew">Jewish</a> sensibilities. The two accounts in Josephus' writings of one important event may be summarised as follows:<br />On one occasion, when the soldiers under his command came to Jerusalem, he made them bring their ensigns with them, upon which were the usual images of the emperor. <a title="Aquila (Roman)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquila_%28Roman%29">Roman battle standards</a> were considered idolatrous by the Jews. The ensigns were brought in secretly by night, but their presence was soon discovered. Immediately multitudes of excited Jews rushed to Caesarea to petition him for the removal of the obnoxious ensigns. He ignored them for five days, but the next day he admitted the Jews to hear their complaint. He had them surrounded with soldiers and threatened them with instant death unless they ceased to trouble him with the matter. The Jews then threw themselves to the ground and bared their necks, declaring that they preferred death to the violation of their laws. Pilate, unwilling to kill so many, succumbed and removed the ensigns.<a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#_note-3">[4]</a><br /><a title="Philo of Alexandria" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philo_of_Alexandria">Philo of Alexandria</a> states that on one other occasion Pilate dedicated some gilded shields in the palace of <a title="Herod Antipas" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herod_Antipas">Herod Antipas</a> in honor of the emperor. On these shields there was no representation of any forbidden thing, but simply an inscription of the name of the donor and of him in whose honor they were set up. The Jews petitioned him to have them removed; when he refused, they appealed to Tiberius, who sent an order that they should be removed to Caesarea (Philo, Legatio ad Gaium,, 38).<br />Pilate is also said to have appropriated <a title="Herod's Temple" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herod%27s_Temple">Herod's Temple</a> funds for the construction of an <a title="Aqueduct (Roman)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aqueduct_%28Roman%29">aqueduct</a>:<br />At another time he used the sacred treasure of the temple, called <a title="Corban" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corban">corban</a> (qorban), to pay for bringing water into Jerusalem by an aqueduct. A crowd came together and clamored against him; but he had caused soldiers dressed as civilians to mingle with the multitude, and at a given signal they fell upon the rioters and beat them so severely with staves that the riot was quelled (Josephus, Jewish War 2.175–177; Ant. 18.60–62).<br />Pilate may possibly have responded so harshly to the unrest because, due to political machinations, the powerful neighbouring Roman province of Syria was unable to provide him military support.[<a title="Wikipedia:Citation needed" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a>]<br />Shortly after the account of this episode, the Antiquities of the Jews 18.63-64, a heavily disputed passage known as the <a title="Testimonium Flavianum" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testimonium_Flavianum">Testimonium Flavianum</a> and which many scholars think was interpolated, states that, "about this time", Pilate ordered the crucifixion of someone called "Jesus", whom the author identifies as "the <a title="Christ" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christ">Christ</a>" (i.e. the <a title="Messiah" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messiah">Messiah</a>), after whom "the tribe of Christians" were named.<br />In approximately 36, Pilate used arrests and executions to quash what appears to have been a <a title="Samaritan" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samaritan">Samaritan</a> religious procession in arms that may have been interpreted as an uprising.<a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#_note-4">[5]</a> Pilate's behaviour was so offensive to the morals of the time that, after complaints to the Roman legate of Syria, Pilate was recalled to <a title="Rome" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome">Rome</a>, where he disappears from historic record. Pilate's supposed suicide[<a title="Wikipedia:Citation needed" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a>] is merely a legend, and not derived from any historical account.<br />The "Pilate Inscription" or "Pilate Stone" from Caesarea<br /><a title="Limestone block discovered in 1961 with Pilate's tribute in Latin to Tiberius. The words [...]TIVS PILATV[...] can be clearly seen on the second line." href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Pilate-inscription_03.jpg"></a><br /><a title="Enlarge" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Pilate-inscription_03.jpg"></a><br />Limestone block discovered in 1961 with Pilate's tribute in Latin to <a title="Tiberius" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiberius">Tiberius</a>. The words [...]TIVS PILATV[...] can be clearly seen on the second line.<br />The first physical evidence relating to Pilate was discovered in <a title="1961" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1961">1961</a>, when <a title="Pilate Stone" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilate_Stone">a block of black limestone</a> was found in the Roman theatre at <a title="Caesarea Maritima" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesarea_Maritima">Caesarea Maritima</a>, the capital of the province of <a title="Iudaea (Roman province)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iudaea_%28Roman_province%29">Iudaea</a>, bearing a damaged dedication by Pilate of a Tiberieum.<a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#_note-5">[6]</a> This dedication states that he was [...]ECTVS IUDA[...] (usually read as praefectus iudaeae), that is, prefect/governor of Iudaea. The early governors of Iudaea were of prefect rank, the later were of procurator rank, beginning with <a title="Cuspius Fadus" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuspius_Fadus">Cuspius Fadus</a> in 44.<br />The inscription is currently housed in the <a title="Israel Museum" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel_Museum">Israel Museum</a> in <a title="Jerusalem" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>, where its Inventory number is AE 1963 no. 104. Dated to 26–37, it was discovered in <a title="Caesarea (Israel)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesarea_%28Israel%29">Caesarea (Israel)</a> by a group led by Antonio Frova.<br />Pilate in the canonical Gospel accounts<br /><a title="Christ before Pilate, Mihály Munkácsy, 1881" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Munkacsy_-_christ_before_pilate.jpg"></a><br /><a title="Enlarge" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Munkacsy_-_christ_before_pilate.jpg"></a><br />Christ before Pilate, <a title="Mihály Munkácsy" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mih%C3%A1ly_Munk%C3%A1csy">Mihály Munkácsy</a>, 1881<br />According to the <a title="Biblical canon" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblical_canon">canonical</a> Christian Gospels, Pilate presided at the trial of Jesus and, despite stating that he personally found him not guilty of a crime meriting death, handed him over to crucifixion. Pilate is thus a pivotal character in the <a title="New Testament" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Testament">New Testament</a> accounts of Jesus.<br />According to the New Testament, Jesus was brought to Pilate by the <a title="Sanhedrin" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanhedrin">Sanhedrin</a>, who had arrested Jesus, and questioned him themselves. The Sanhedrin had, according to the Gospels, only been given answers by Jesus that they considered blasphemous. The <a title="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=" version="31" href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=luke%2023:1-2&version=31">Gospel of Luke</a> records that members of the Sanhedrin then took Jesus before Pilate where they accused him of sedition against Rome by opposing the payment of taxes to Caesar and calling himself a king. Pilate's main question to Jesus was whether he considered himself to be the King of the Jews, and thus a political threat. <a title="http://php.ug.cs.usyd.edu.au/~jnot4610/bibref.php?book=" verse="15:2&src=" href="http://php.ug.cs.usyd.edu.au/~jnot4610/bibref.php?book=%20Mark&verse=15:2&src=NIV">Mark 15:2</a> in the <a title="NIV" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NIV">NIV</a> translation states: "Are you the king of the Jews?" asked Pilate. "Yes, it is as you say," Jesus replied. However, that is a debatable translation of «ὁ δὲ ἀποκριθεὶς αὐτῶ λέγει, σὺ λέγεις». The <a title="KJV" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KJV">KJV</a> has Jesus' reply as: "Thou sayest it"; the <a title="NRSV" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NRSV">NRSV</a> has: "You say so"; the <a title="Jesus Seminar" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesus_Seminar">Jesus Seminar</a>'s Scholars Version has: "If you say so."<br />The <a title="Gospel of Luke" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel_of_Luke">Gospel of Luke</a> also reports that such questions were asked of Jesus, in Luke's case it being the priests that repeatedly accuse him, though Luke states that Jesus remained silent to such inquisition, causing Pilate to hand Jesus over to the jurisdiction (<a title="Galilee" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galilee">Galilee</a>) of <a title="Herod Antipas" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herod_Antipas">Herod Antipas</a>. Although initially excited at meeting Jesus, about whom he had heard, Luke states that Herod ended up mocking Jesus and so sent him back to Pilate. This intermediate episode with Herod is not reported by the other Gospels, which appear to present a continuous and singular trial in front of Pilate.<br />Unlike the <a title="Synoptic gospels" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synoptic_gospels">synoptic gospels</a>, the <a title="Gospel of John" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel_of_John">Gospel of John</a> states that Jesus said to Pilate that he is a king and "came into the world ... to bear witness to the truth; and all who are on the side of truth listen to my voice", to which Pilate famously replied, "<a title="What is truth?" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_is_truth%3F">What is truth?</a>" (<a title="http://php.ug.cs.usyd.edu.au/~jnot4610/bibref.php?book=" verse="18:38&src=" href="http://php.ug.cs.usyd.edu.au/~jnot4610/bibref.php?book=%20John&verse=18:38&src=NIV">John 18:38</a>)<br />In a volume of <a title="Believe It or Not" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Believe_It_or_Not">Believe It or Not</a>, <a title="Robert Ripley" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Ripley">Ripley</a> quotes Pilate speaking in <a title="Latin" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin">Latin</a>, "QUID EST VERITAS?" ("What is truth?") and adds that an <a title="Anagram" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anagram">anagram</a> of this is "EST VIR QUI ADEST"--"It is the man who stands before you."<br />The Synoptic Gospels and John then state that it had been a tradition of the Jews to release a prisoner at the time of the <a title="Passover" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passover">Passover</a>. Pilate offers them the choice of an insurrectionist named <a title="Barabbas" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barabbas">Barabbas</a> or Jesus, somewhat confusing because Barabbas had the full name Jesus Barabbas, and Barabbas (bar-Abbas) means Son of the Father, so the crowd had been given the choice of Jesus Son of the Father or Jesus. The crowd states that they wish to save Barabbas (i.e., Jesus Son of the Father). According to the Synoptics, Pilate is aware that the priests had handed Jesus over because they considered him a threat, but Pilate himself does not feel that Jesus is any threat to the Roman Empire and, upholding a Roman tradition of sparing the subjugated, asserts that Jesus is innocent of the charges.<br />Pilate is forced to condemn Jesus to crucifixion, due to the pressure of the crowd, who according to the Synoptics had been coached to shout against Jesus by the <a title="Pharisees" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharisees">Pharisees</a> and <a title="Sadducees" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadducees">Sadducees</a>. The <a title="Gospel of Matthew" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel_of_Matthew">Gospel of Matthew</a> adds that before condemning Jesus to death, Pilate washes his hands with water in front of the crowd, saying, "I am innocent of this man's blood; you will see".<br /><a title="Jesus at the hands of Pilate, oil on Canvas- Cucuta Cathedral Colombia by Master Santiago Martinez Delgado" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Jesus_and_Pilatos_by_Santiago_Martinez_Delgado.jpg"></a><br /><a title="Enlarge" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Jesus_and_Pilatos_by_Santiago_Martinez_Delgado.jpg"></a><br />Jesus at the hands of Pilate, oil on Canvas- Cucuta Cathedral Colombia by Master <a title="Santiago Martinez Delgado" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santiago_Martinez_Delgado">Santiago Martinez Delgado</a><br />Responsibility for Jesus' death<br />In all New Testament accounts, Pilate hesitates to condemn Jesus until the crowd insists. Some have suggested that this may have been an effort by <a title="Early Christian" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Christian">Early Christian</a> polemicists to curry favor with Rome by placing the blame for Jesus' execution on the Jews.[<a title="Wikipedia:Citation needed" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a>] Yet Pilate's ability to be swayed by the crowd and his subsequent unjust decision to execute the innocent man hardly seem complimentary of Rome. So perhaps to save face, he "washed his hands", said that his death was not on his hands, and let the crowd decide.<br />Roman magistrates had wide discretion in executing their tasks, and some readers question whether Pilate would have been so captive to the demands of the crowd (Miller, 49–50). (And see, Nettervile, "Jesus, etc pp. 22-23)<a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#_note-6">[7]</a> Summarily executing someone to calm the situation would, however, have been a tool a Roman governor could have used, and Pilate's reputation for cruelty and violence in secular accounts of the era makes it quite plausible he would have had no hesitation in using this tool.<br />With the <a title="Edict of Milan" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edict_of_Milan">Edict of Milan</a> in AD 313, the state-sponsored <a title="Persecution of Christians" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians">persecution of Christians</a> came to an end, and Christianity became officially tolerated as one of the religions of the Roman Empire. Afterward, in AD 325 the <a title="First Council of Nicaea" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea">First Ecumenical Council</a> at Nicaea promulgated a creed which was amended at the subsequent <a title="First Council of Constantinople" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Council_of_Constantinople">First Council of Constantinople</a> in 381. The <a title="Nicene Creed" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicene_Creed">Nicene Creed</a> incorporated for the first time the clause was crucified under Pontius Pilate (which had already been long established in the <a title="Old Roman Symbol" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Roman_Symbol">Old Roman Symbol</a>, an ancient form of the <a title="Apostles' Creed" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apostles%27_Creed">Apostles' Creed</a> dating as far back as the 2nd century AD) in a creed that was intended to be authoritative for all Christians in the Roman Empire. The main reason for this clause was to state the belief in Jesus as a real person, living in a precise moment and place, that is <a title="Historicity of Jesus" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historicity_of_Jesus">a historical Jesus</a>. It is less clear that it was intended to implicate Pilate in Jesus' death. In modern times Western traditions regard Pilate as guilty, but those of <a title="Eastern Orthodox Church" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church">Eastern Orthodoxy</a> argue that he was clearly exonerated, and did all that he could to release Jesus.[<a title="Wikipedia:Citation needed" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed">citation needed</a>]<br />Pilate in the Apocrypha<br />Little enough is known about Pilate, but mythology has filled the gap. A body of fiction built up around the dramatic figure of Pontius Pilate, about whom the Christian faithful hungered to learn more than the canonical gospels revealed. <a title="Eusebius" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eusebius">Eusebius</a> (Historia Ecclesiae ii: 7) quotes some early apocryphal accounts that he does not name, which already relate that Pilate fell under misfortunes in the reign of <a title="Caligula" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caligula">Caligula</a> (AD 37–41), was exiled to <a title="Gaul" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaul">Gaul</a> and eventually committed suicide there in <a title="Vienne, Isère" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienne%2C_Is%C3%A8re">Vienne</a>.<br />Other details come from less respectable sources. His body, says the Mors Pilati ("Death of Pilate"), was thrown first into the <a title="Tiber" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiber">Tiber</a>, but the waters were so disturbed by evil spirits that the body was taken to Vienne and sunk in the <a title="Rhône River" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rh%C3%B4ne_River">Rhône</a>: a monument at Vienne, called Pilate's tomb, is still to be seen. As the waters of the Rhone likewise rejected Pilate's corpse, it was again removed and sunk in the lake at <a title="Lausanne" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lausanne">Lausanne</a>. The sequence was a simple way to harmonise conflicting local traditions.<br />The corpse's final disposition was in a deep and lonely mountain tarn, which, according to later tradition, was on a mountain, still called <a title="Mount Pilatus" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Pilatus">Pilatus</a> (actually pileatus or "cloud capped"), overlooking <a title="Lucerne" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucerne">Lucerne</a>. Every <a title="Good Friday" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_Friday">Good Friday</a>, the body is said to reemerge from the waters and wash its hands.<br />There are many other legends about Pilate in the folklore of Germany, particularly about his birth, according to which Pilate was born in the Franconian city of <a title="Forchheim (Oberfranken)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forchheim_%28Oberfranken%29">Forchheim</a> or the small village of <a title="Hausen" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hausen">Hausen</a> only 5 km away from it. His death was (unusually) dramatised in a medieval <a title="Mystery play" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mystery_play">mystery</a> <a title="Play cycle" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Play_cycle">play cycle</a> from Cornwall, the Cornish Ordinalia.<br />Pilate's role in the events leading to the crucifixion lent themselves to melodrama, even tragedy, and Pilate often has a role in medieval <a title="Mystery play" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mystery_play">mystery plays</a>.<br />In the <a title="Eastern Orthodox Church" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church">Eastern Orthodox Church</a>, <a title="Claudia Procula" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claudia_Procula">Claudia Procula</a> is commemorated as a saint, but not Pilate, because in the Gospel accounts Claudia urged Pilate to have nothing to do with Jesus. In some Eastern Orthodox traditions, Pilate committed suicide out of remorse for having sentenced Jesus to death.<br />Gospel of Peter<br />Main article: <a title="Gospel of Peter" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel_of_Peter">Gospel of Peter</a><br />The fragmentary apocryphal <a title="Gospel of Peter" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel_of_Peter">Gospel of Peter</a> exonerates Pilate of responsibility for the crucifixion of Jesus, placing it instead on <a title="Herod Antipas" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herod_Antipas">Herod</a> and the Jews, who unlike Pilate refuse to "wash their hands". After the soldiers see three men and a cross miraculously walking out of the tomb they report to Pilate who reiterates his innocence: "I am pure from the blood of the Son of God". He then commands the soldiers not to tell anyone what they have seen so that they would not "fall into the hands of the people of the Jews and be stoned".<br />Acts of Pilate<br />Main article: <a title="Acts of Pilate" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acts_of_Pilate">Acts of Pilate</a><br />The 4th century <a title="Apocryphal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apocryphal">apocryphal</a> text that is called the <a title="Acts of Pilate" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acts_of_Pilate">Acts of Pilate</a> presents itself in a preface (missing in some MSS) as derived from the official acts preserved in the <a title="Praetorium" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praetorium">praetorium</a> at Jerusalem. Though the alleged Hebrew original of the document is attributed to <a title="Nicodemus" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicodemus">Nicodemus</a>, the title Gospel of Nicodemus for this fictional account only appeared in mediaeval times, after the document had been substantially elaborated. Nothing in the text suggests that it is in fact a translation from Hebrew or Aramaic.<br />This text gained wide credit in the <a title="Middle Ages" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages">Middle Ages</a>, and has considerably affected the legends surrounding the events of the crucifixion, which, taken together, are called the <a title="Passion (Christianity)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passion_%28Christianity%29">Passion</a>. Its popularity is attested by the number of languages in which it exists, each of these being represented by two or more variant "editions": Greek (the original), Coptic, Armenian and Latin versions. The Latin versions were printed several times in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.<br />One class of the Latin manuscripts contain as an appendix or continuation, the Cura Sanitatis Tiberii, the oldest form of the <a title="Saint Veronica" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Veronica">Veronica</a> legend.<br />The Acts of Pilate consist of three sections, whose styles reveal three authors, writing at three different times.<br />The first section (1–11) contains a fanciful and dramatic circumstantial account of the trial of Jesus, based upon <a title="http://php.ug.cs.usyd.edu.au/~jnot4610/bibref.php?book=" verse="23&src=" href="http://php.ug.cs.usyd.edu.au/~jnot4610/bibref.php?book=%20Luke&verse=23&src=!">Luke 23</a>.<br />The second part (12–16) regards the <a title="Resurrection" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resurrection">Resurrection</a>.<br />An appendix, detailing the Descensus ad Infernos was added to the Greek text. This legend of a <a title="Harrowing of Hell" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harrowing_of_Hell">Harrowing of Hell</a> has chiefly flourished in Latin, and was translated into many European versions. It doesn't exist in the eastern versions, Syriac and Armenian, that derive directly from Greek versions. In it, Leucius and Charinus, the two souls raised from the dead after the Crucifixion, relate to the <a title="Sanhedrin" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanhedrin">Sanhedrin</a> the circumstances of Christ's descent to <a title="Limbo" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limbo">Limbo</a>. (<a title="Leucius Charinus" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucius_Charinus">Leucius Charinus</a> is the traditional name to which many late apocryphal Acta of Apostles is attached.)<br /><a title="Eusebius" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eusebius">Eusebius</a> (325), although he mentions an Acta Pilati that had been referred to by <a title="Justin" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justin">Justin</a> and <a title="Tertullian" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertullian">Tertullian</a> and other pseudo-Acts of this kind, shows no acquaintance with this work. Almost surely it is of later origin, and scholars agree in assigning it to the middle of the 4th century. <a title="Epiphanius" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epiphanius">Epiphanius</a> refers to an Acta Pilati similar to this, as early as 376, but there are indications that the current Greek text, the earliest extant form, is a revision of an earlier one.<br />Justin the Martyr - The First and Second Apology of Justin Chapter 35-"And that these things did happen, you can ascertain from the Acts of Pontius Pilate."<br />The Apology letters were written and addressed by name to the Roman Emperor Pius and the Roman Governor Urbicus. All three of these men lived between AD 138-161.<br />Minor Pilate literature<br />There is a <a title="Pseudepigrapha" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudepigrapha">pseudepigrapha</a> letter reporting on the crucifixion, purporting to have been sent by Pontius Pilate to the Emperor Claudius, embodied in the pseudepigrapha known as the <a title="Acts of Peter and Paul" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acts_of_Peter_and_Paul">Acts of Peter and Paul</a>, of which the <a title="Catholic Encyclopedia" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia">Catholic Encyclopedia</a> states, "This composition is clearly apocryphal though unexpectedly brief and restrained." There is no internal relation between this feigned letter and the 4th-century <a title="Acts of Pilate" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acts_of_Pilate">Acts of Pilate</a> (Acta Pilati).<br />This Epistle or Report of Pilate is also inserted into the <a title="Pseudo-Marcellus" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudo-Marcellus">Pseudo-Marcellus</a> <a title="Passio sanctorum Petri et Pauli" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passio_sanctorum_Petri_et_Pauli">Passio sanctorum Petri et Pauli</a> ("Passion of Peter and Paul"). We thus have it in both Greek and Latin versions.<br />The Mors Pilati ("Death of Pilate") legend is a Latin tradition, thus treating Pilate as a monster, not a saint; it is attached usually to the more sympathetic <a title="Gospel of Nicodemus" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel_of_Nicodemus">Gospel of Nicodemus</a> of Greek origin. The narrative of the Mors Pilati set of manuscripts is set in motion by an illness of Tiberius, who sends Volusanius to Judea to fetch the Christ for a cure. In Judea Pilate covers for the fact that Christ has been crucified, and asks for a delay. But Volusanius encounters <a title="Saint Veronica" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Veronica">Veronica</a> who informs him of the truth but sends him back to Rome with her Veronica of Christ's face on her kerchief, which heals Tiberius. Tiberius then calls for Pontius Pilate, but when Pilate appears, he is wearing the seamless robe of the Christ and Tiberius' heart is softened, but only until Pilate is induced to doff the garment, whereupon he is treated to a ghastly execution. His body, when thrown into the Tiber, however, raises such storm demons that it is sent to Vienne (<a title="Gehenna" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gehenna">via gehennae</a>) in France and thrown to the Rhone. That river's spirits reject it too, and the body is driven east into "Losania", where it is plunged in the bay of the lake near <a title="Lucerne" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucerne">Lucerne</a>, near Mont Pilatus — originally Mons Pileatus or "cloud-capped", as <a title="John Ruskin" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ruskin">John Ruskin</a> pointed out in Modern Painters — whence the uncorrupting corpse rises every Good Friday to sit on the bank and wash unavailing hands.<br />This version combined with anecdotes of Pilate's wicked early life were incorporated in <a title="Jacobus de Voragine" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacobus_de_Voragine">Jacobus de Voragine</a>'s <a title="Golden Legend" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Legend">Golden Legend</a>, which ensured a wide circulation for it in the later Middle Ages. Other legendary versions of Pilate death exist: <a title="Antoine de la Sale" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_de_la_Sale">Antoine de la Sale</a> reported from a travel in central <a title="Italy" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy">Italy</a> on some local traditions asserting that after the death the body of Pontius Pilate was driven until a little lake near <a title="Vettore Peak" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vettore_Peak&action=edit">Vettore Peak</a> (2478 m in <a title="Sibillini Mounts" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sibillini_Mounts">Sibillini Mounts</a> ) and plunged in. The lake, today, is still named <a title="Lago di Pilato" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lago_di_Pilato&action=edit">Lago di Pilato</a>.<br />In the Cornish cycle of <a title="Mystery play" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mystery_play">mystery plays</a>, the "death of Pilate" forms a dramatic scene in the Resurrexio Domini cycle. More of Pilate's fictional correspondence is found in the minor Pilate apocrypha, the Anaphora Pilati (Relation of Pilate), an Epistle of Herod to Pilate, and an Epistle of Pilate to Herod, spurious texts that are no older than the 5th century.<br />The <a title="Ethiopian Church" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopian_Church">Ethiopian Church</a> recognized Pilate as a saint in the sixth century, based on the account in the <a title="Acts of Pilate" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acts_of_Pilate">Acts of Pilate</a>.<a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/#_note-7">[8]</a><br />Pilate in later fiction<br />Plays and movies dealing with life of Jesus Christ often include the character of Pontius Pilate due to the central role he played in the final days of Christ's life. Authors have also found reason to make Pilate a main character and fill in unknown details of his life. Pilate has been interpreted in a number of different ways. At times he was portrayed as a weak and harried bureaucrat. Some portrayals show Pilate as a hard governor who ruled with an iron fist. Also, some authors have portrayed Pilate as a man who sees clearly how the story of Jesus will affect human history. Other writers have portrayed a Pilate oblivious to the significance of the Galilean he condemns to death.Duke Eversmeyerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12979421184987312497noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7936381627778855349.post-91003561252863081632008-01-16T20:05:00.001-08:002008-01-16T20:05:56.622-08:00Lesson 15 Judas Iscariot, The BetrayerTo this day Judas being called with the other disciples is somewhat mysterious. Judas Iscariot is noted in history as the one who betrayed Him (Jesus). Yet Judas was first numbered among the Twelve apostles (Lk.6:13, 22:3; Acts 1:16-17 numbered with us), “chosen” by Christ Himself, the “Apostle Judas” became a traitor? How could they not know a betrayer was in their midst. How could Judas go out and minister with them and see the same results and yet turn Jesus over in the hands of those who hated him?<br />Some things we need to notice about Judas, he called Jesus teacher, he never called Jesus Lord or master as the other apostles did. This may be a hint how he saw Jesus. Jesus wanted to be known as Lord, not just teacher (Mk.12:37; Lk.20:42; Jn.9:36-38). While the other disciples wondered what kind of man Jesus was, a man that could calm the sea by a word, Judas accepted him only as Rabbi.<br />One cannot be an official apostle without seeing Jesus’ resurrection, which Judas did not see because he hung himself beforehand. The 12 were called apostles (chosen sent ones) prior but did not become the apostles of the Church until the resurrection, for the church was not officially born until the Holy Spirit was sent on Pentecost. It was then the apostles were put in their office of teaching, planting churches and doing miracles in the power of the Holy Spirit.<br />Was Judas saved because he was a disciple and lost salvation? It is assumed he was saved because he traveled with the other disciples but it may be more prudent to take the position he was not. Judas was hand picked like the other disciples but his position was temporary (Jesus knew what was going on all along). He was given the job of treasury but he was secretly a thief. Jesus put Judas in charge of the very thing that would give either wings to his hearts corruption or for his repentance, money. Judas often heard Jesus speak on money but it did not change him. The possibility to reform him was always there but it did not occur because of his own heart not inclined to obey the words spoken by our Lord.<br />It was Judas who showed what was in his heart when he complained about the oil was poured over Jesus preparing him for his burial. John 12:2-8 “There they made Him a supper; and Martha served, but Lazarus was one of those who sat at the table with Him. Then Mary took a pound of very costly oil of spikenard, anointed the feet of Jesus, and wiped His feet with her hair. And the house was filled with the fragrance of the oil. Then one of His disciples, Judas Iscariot, Simon’s son, who would betray Him, said, “Why was this fragrant oil not sold for three hundred denari and given to the poor?” This he said, not that he cared for the poor, but because he was a thief, and had the money box; and he used to take what was put in it. But Jesus said, “Let her alone; she has kept this for the day of My burial. “For the poor you have with you always, but Me you do not have always.”<br />Notice that in retrospect what they say of Judas. He was a thief in charge of the money given to the apostles.<br />He looked at the oil as if to bring in a lot of money (John 12:5-8). Judas estimated the value of the oil at nearly sixty dollars (worth hundreds of dollars today). His apparent concern for the poor was to conceal his own covetousness. He had just missed a chance of stealing on a larger scale than usual. Evidently, no one kept track of what was going inside the box and going out except Judas and Jesus.<br />Judas Iscariot, one of His disciples, who was intending to betray Him, said, “Why was this perfume not sold for three hundred denari, and given to the poor people?” Now he said this, not because he was concerned about the poor, but because he was a thief, and he had the money box, he used to pilfer what was put into it. Matt: 26: 8, But the disciples were indignant when they saw this, and said, “Why this waste?” For this perfume might have been sold for a higher price and the money given to the poor.”<br />Mark 14: 4 records, “ But some were indignantly remarked to one another, “Why has this perfume been wasted?” Judas, who pretends to care for the poor, influenced the disciples to join with him in his rebellious spirit.<br />Jesus shielded Mary by cutting short the criticism. Let her alone. Jesus saw in Mary’s act a biblical significance- she kept this for the day of my burying. Mary had reserved this precious oil for Christ. She anticipated his death. Mary believed in Jesus’ words he spoke about this coming; in contrast to many who believed but did not understand, her faith included the work of the Saviour-his death.<br />It appears from the Synoptics that Judas was deeply offended by this rebuke, which could have prompted him to later strike a bargain with the chief priests to betray Jesus. He was not going to forfeit any money. Another point is hearing Jesus speak about his death, Judas could have looked at his position as temporary and wanted to take advantage of it. The love of money can twist ones good intentions to evil very easily.<br />There are two people in the Bible who are called the “Son of Perdition,” Judas and the Antichrist!! They both are very much into money. The Bible says the Pharisees loved money and so did Judas, so they had a common affection. This is why they were able to bribe Judas to betray our Lord.<br />One of the ways the antichrist will deceive and gather people on his side is he will pretend to care about the poor. He will misrepresent himself, as a great humanitarian and offer prosperity. Judas who is called a son of perdition is a type of the one who is to come, and we can learn much from his attitude. Considering that he was among those who did ministry from their heart wanting to serve Jesus with the right motives and he was among them did not.<br />One of the reasons Judas Iscariot betrayed Jesus is because one of the chief priests “promised to give him money” (Mark 14:10-11). Those who were threatened by Jesus wanted him out of the way. We have to be on guard for those close to us that are doing something wrong that can affect us. The Devil's messenger, is often an angel of light who looks like a minister of righteousness. People will do almost anything for money when it is their priority in life. It is obvious from the remarks afterwards that Judas was never honest about his commitment just as Anannias and Saphirra, he was lying.<br />What are we to think of Judas being one of the disciples, even one of the 12 who were appointed to be an apostle. Mark 3:14-15 adds to preaching, “Then He appointed twelve, that they might be with Him and that He might send them out to preach, and to have power to heal sicknesses and to cast out demons”<br />Mark 6:7 And He called the twelve to Himself, and began to send them out two by two, and gave them power over unclean spirits. “We don’t know whom Judas was teamed up with but they all had the same message and power. “So they went out and preached that people should repent. And they cast out many demons, and anointed with oil many who were sick, and healed them” (Mark 6:12-13). Matt. 10:1 adds “ …and to heal all kinds of sickness and all kinds of disease.”<br />Luke 9:10 “And the apostles, when they had returned, told Him all that they had done.”<br />Another time Jesus had the seventy he sent out who came back with stories of healing and deliverance “Nevertheless do not rejoice in this, that the spirits are subject to you, but rather rejoice because your names are written in heaven” (Luke 10:20). Jesus was more concerned about them then what they could do with his authority. Judas never understood this as he had his mind fixed on other things.<br />How did Judas become one of the 12 see the power and all these miracles and then apostatize? When someone's heart is not right and you give them power it only amplifies what is wrong, not what is right (another example is Peter with Simon the sorcerer). We are also told that Judas did not let the word cleanse him (John 13:10;15:3). He did not abide in Jesus’ teachings, instead he was enticed by the authority to do miracles given to those who followed and his love for the money prevented him from being a servant. Amazingly, Judas was among them having the same results without their suspecting he was a devil who would eventually betray their Lord. Judas a perfect example of those claiming to do miracles in Christ’s name and where Jesus turns to them saying he never knew them (Mt.7:21). Meaning he did not have a relationship (a two way correspondence of love) with the Lord. Demons were subject to him like the rest of the apostles but again as in Mt.7:21 it does not mean that if one uses his name and sees the miraculous they are saved. What proves one is saved is repentance, a continual confession of their sin and reliance on the Lords strength and the fruit of the Holy Spirit present in their life.<br />Peter learned well from Judas’ betrayal how money can corrupt ones heart. When Simon saw what signs the apostles could do he offered money for this power. Peters response was “Your money perish with you, because you thought that the gift of God could be purchased with money!” You have neither part nor portion in this matter, for your heart is not right in the sight of God. “Repent therefore of this your wickedness, and pray God if perhaps the thought of your heart may be forgiven you. “For I see that you are poisoned by bitterness and bound by iniquity” (Acts 8:20-23).At one point in Jesus’ ministry He speaks some strong statements that few understood and many began to leave him. As recorded in John 6 he asks the question to his close disciples (the 12) about their leaving him like the others disciples. But Simon Peter answered Him, “Lord, to whom shall we go? You have the words of eternal life.” Also we have come to believe and know that You are the Christ, the Son of the living God. “Jesus answered them, “Did I not choose you, the twelve, and one of you is a devil? “He spoke of Judas Iscariot, the son of Simon, for it was he who would betray Him, being one of the twelve (John 6:68-71.) Now we understand how Judas was included with the twelve. Jesus knew all along who he was - yet he chose him. And by doing so it was fulfilling the Scripture that cannot be broken.<br />Jesus said to the multitude “But there are some of you who do not believe.” For Jesus knew from the beginning who they were who did not believe, and who would betray Him” (John 6:64). Judas never believed even from the beginning. Jesus had known from the beginning who they were who did not believe and who would betray him.” It was more than one that had not believed. V.66 tells us many disciples left then. But from the beginning it is referring to Judas as the one who would betray him! For Jesus knew from the beginning who THEY WERE who did not believe and who WOULD be the one to betray him.<br />Jn.17:12 tells us no one will be lost, but the son of perdition, who is Judas. He fulfilled the position by the purposes of his own heart. Acts 1:24-25 states that he fell from the position of Apostleship, not from salvation, for it appears for all intensive purposes he never possessed it. So they picked another for his position by lots, Mattias who was with them from John and saw the resurrection.<br />The Scripture had to be fulfilled. Matt 20:17-18 “Now Jesus, going up to Jerusalem, took the twelve disciples aside on the road and said to them, “Behold, we are going up to Jerusalem, and the Son of Man will be betrayed to the chief priests and to the scribes; and they will condemn Him to death; just before the time of the last Passover. Matt 26:14-16 “Then one of the twelve, called Judas Iscariot, went to the chief priests and said, “What are you willing to give me if I deliver Him to you?” And they counted out to him thirty pieces of silver. So from that time he sought opportunity to betray Him.”<br />Marks account says “And when they heard it, they were glad, and promised to give him money. So he sought how he might conveniently betray Him” (Mark 14:11)<br />John 13:1-2 “Now before the feast of the Passover, when Jesus knew that His hour had come that He should depart from this world to the Father, having loved His own who were in the world, He loved them to the end. And supper being ended, the devil having already put it into the heart of Judas Iscariot, Simon’s son, to betray Him.”<br />Did God love Judas Iscariot, whom Scripture calls the son of perdition? At the last supper Jesus even washed Judas’ feet, showing love to his enemy. But showing love to your enemy does not guarantee they will repent. John 13:11-16 “For He knew who would betray Him; therefore He said, “You are not all clean. So when He had washed their feet, taken His garments, and sat down again, He said to them, “Do you know what I have done to you?” You call me Teacher and Lord, and you say well, for so I am.” If I then, your Lord and Teacher, have washed your feet, you also ought to wash one another’s feet.” For I have given you an example, that you should do as I have done to you.”<br />How well do we love our enemies, do we try to wash their feet and serve them giving them room to repent. That is the love Jesus displayed for us.<br />Even in the betrayal he was loved but this will not negate his responsibility in betraying Jesus and he will be punished for his disobedience that led to high treason. God loves the whole world and at times shows it personally to people yet he has allowed men to reject him and trample underfoot his love and fully knows who they are before they do this to him.<br />At the last supper Judas sat at the table on one side of Jesus, John on the other. Jesus quotes from Ps. 41 and attributes it to Judas in Jn. 13:18. The full verse from Ps. 41 is: “Even my close friend, whom I trusted, he who shared my bread, has lifted up his heel against me,” v.9. Please note that Judas was once Jesus’ “close friend whom I [Jesus] trusted!” (Also, Ps. 41:9 states of the betrayer as Jesus’ “close friend”). Since Jesus “knew what was in a man” (Jn. 2:25), in his heart, how then could Jesus have trusted Judas early on if Judas was not to be saved? Jn.13:16-21 Jesus says he was not clean. In other words he heard the word day in and day out but did not take it internally (to heart), he really did not believe it or act upon it. He did not have living faith.<br />When Jesus said one of them would betray him they all wondered if he was speaking of them. They all said “Lord is it I,” but Judas said teacher. Judas knew it!<br />Luke 22:3 “Then Satan entered Judas, surnamed Iscariot, who was numbered among the twelve.” It is obvious that Judas had already been influenced by Satan which gave him leeway to enter him. He knew Jesus’ ministry was coming to a close. Judas loved the things of the world (money) and so even though he was among the learners and with Jesus personally he was the target that could be easily influenced for the greatest betrayal in history.<br />Matt. 26:23-24 He answered and said, “He who dipped his hand with Me in the dish will betray Me. “The Son of Man indeed goes just as it is written of Him, but woe to that man by whom the Son of Man is betrayed! It would have been good for that man if he had not been born.”<br />Then Judas, who was betraying Him, answered and said, “Rabbi, is it I?” He said to him, “You have said it” (Matt. 26:25). Judas wanted to see if Jesus knew what he was doing. It didn’t matter if Jesus knew; Satan had a mission. Satan had the audacity to enter Judas at the last supper (the Passover), right in front of Jesus, and later brought Judas to identify him face to face fervently kissing him to be arrested and later to be crucified.<br />At the last supper we find Judas partook of the bread (a symbol of Jesus’ body- flesh), Judas dipped with the bread with Jesus but he left before he could partake of the wine (a symbol of Christ’s blood shed on the cross) Jn.13:26-30.<br />He identified with the humanity of Jesus but not His ultimate mission. He left to do his betrayal before the wine was passed to partake as the new covenant. So he partook of Jesus as far as what the bread stood for, but never partook of communion, a symbol of the blood that could cleanse him.<br />John 13:27-30 “Now after the piece of bread, Satan entered him. Then Jesus said to him, “What you do, do quickly.” But no one at the table knew for what reason He said this to him. For some thought, because Judas had the money box, that Jesus had said to him, “Buy those things we need for the feast,” or that he should give something to the poor. Having received the piece of bread, he then went out immediately. And it was night.” Interesting, Right after this Jesus gives the disciples a new commandment, to love one another as he loved them.<br />Judas left and was not present when he gave the disciples the promise in John 14 of his going away and coming again to take his believers to the place he is preparing in heaven.<br />John 18:1-3 “After Jesus partook the Passover, He went out with His disciples over the Brook Kidron, where he usually went. And Judas, knew the place; Then Judas, having received a detachment of troops, and officers from the chief priests and Pharisees, came there with lanterns, torches, and weapons.”<br />Judas sold Jesus for 30 pieces of silver, which was the price of a dead slave. If your ox killed the neighbor’s slave he was valued at 30 pieces of silver and the owner would have to pay that amount to the owner of the slave. While the disciples slept as Jesus was praying about his soon coming sacrifice Judas is awake betraying him. The devil never sleeps Judas used the most intimate way to show his betrayal, with a kiss. Because of Judas’ betrayal Peter took up the sword to protect Jesus in his arrest, and the disciples scattered. Selling out Jesus does not just affect oneself but others. Though Peter was brave with a weapon in his hand he later acted like a coward by denying to know Jesus three times outside where his trial took place.<br />Mt.27:3-5 Later we find Judas is sorry for his betrayal but it was not a godly sorrow that would lead to repentance for salvation. “Then Judas, His betrayer, seeing that He had been condemned, was remorseful and brought back the thirty pieces of silver to the chief priests and elders, saying, “I have sinned by betraying innocent blood.” And they said, “What is that to us? You see to it!” Then he threw down the pieces of silver in the temple and departed, and went and hanged himself.”<br />Judas had known about the religious trial; seeing Jesus was condemned to death he is overwhelmed with remorse he even gives back the money that wanted so dearly. But this sorrow is not true repentance, so there is no hope for conversion.<br />The Priests got their way and didn’t care about Judas either, only themselves. This shows there is no honor among thieves. He betrayed Jesus, they betray him, a vicious cycle.<br />Under Jewish law ill-gained money cannot be put in the temple treasury. Matt 27:6-10 “But the chief priests took the silver pieces and said, “It is not lawful to put them into the treasury, because they are the price of blood.” And they consulted together and bought with them the potter’s field, to bury strangers in. Therefore that field has been called the Field of Blood to this day. Then was fulfilled what was spoken by Jeremiah the prophet, saying, “And they took the thirty pieces of silver, the value of Him who was priced, whom they of the children of Israel priced, “and gave them for the potter’s field, as the Lord directed me.”<br />Mt. 27:3-10 tells us Judas hung himself. But Acts 1:18-19 states he fell down a cliff and his guts were spilled put. Is there a contradiction in the Bible between these two stories? When he return the money stricken by his conscience of the immensity of what he has done he is overwhelmed with guilt. So he hung himself when it wasn’t accepted.<br />The first night of Passover was Thursday night (the Jewish day ends at sundown when 3 stars are visible) The first day of Passover was Friday morning, the day before the Sabbath (evening). The Jewish law stated there is to be no dead body within the walls of Jerusalem or it would be defiled, unclean and the Passover sacrifice could not be offered. So they took Judas’ already hung body and threw it over the wall into the valley of Hinnom and his guts split open, so there is no contradiction in the Bible on this.<br />As Satan fell from his position so did Judas, he was numbered among the twelve. “for he was numbered with us and obtained a part in this ministry” (Acts 1:17). When the original group of twelve became eleven, the apostles sought another to take Judas’ office.<br />V.20 “For it is written in the book of Psalms: ‘Let his dwelling place be desolate, and let no one live in it’; and, ‘Let another take his office.’ Acts 1:21-22: “Therefore, of these men who have accompanied us all the time the Lord Jesus went in and among us beginning from the baptism of John to that day he was taken up from us One of these must become a witness with us of his resurrection.” They picked the new apostle from only two men among them. And they prayed over and cast lots of who was “to take part in this ministry and apostleship from which Judas by transgression fell, that he might go to his own place” (Acts 1:25)<br />Matthew 26:13 “Verily I say unto you, Wheresoever this gospel shall be preached in the whole world, there shall also this, that this woman hath done, be told for a memorial of her.”<br />On the other end, the betrayal will always have Judas’ name attached to it. And for this reason he is listed with the 12 in Scripture and always listed last.Duke Eversmeyerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12979421184987312497noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7936381627778855349.post-4508295373506516942008-01-08T19:45:00.000-08:002008-01-08T19:52:13.358-08:00Lesson 14 The HerodiansHerodians<br /> The Herodians were one of the Jewish parties of <a href="http://www.keyway.ca/htm2002/jerfacts.htm">Jerusalem</a> and <a href="http://www.keyway.ca/htm2000/20000217.htm">Judea</a> during the human lifetime of <a href="http://www.keyway.ca/htm2002/christ.htm">Jesus Christ</a>, the others being the <a href="http://www.keyway.ca/htm2002/pharisee.htm">Pharisees</a>, <a href="http://www.keyway.ca/htm2002/sadducee.htm">Sadducees</a>, <a href="http://www.keyway.ca/htm2001/20011024.htm">Zealots</a> and Essenes. Unlike the others however, the Herodians were primarily a political group, rather than religious - as their name implies, the Herodians were supporters of <a href="http://www.keyway.ca/htm2002/herods.htm">The Herods</a>, and rule from Rome (see <a href="http://www.keyway.ca/htm2002/emprome.htm">Ancient Empires - Rome</a>). While the Pharisees and Sadduccees opposed Jesus Christ because they viewed Him as a competitor for religious leadership of the people, the collaborationist Herodians opposed the Messiah because they viewed His growing popularity as a political threat to their Roman masters.<br />The Herodians<br />The Herodians joined with the Pharisees to oppose Jesus Christ, even after witnessing His miracles:<br />"Again He entered the Synagogue, and a man was there who had a withered hand. And they watched Him, to see whether He would heal him on the Sabbath, so that they might accuse Him. And He said to the man who had the withered hand, "Come here."<br />"And He said to them, "Is it lawful on the Sabbath to do good or to do harm, to save life or to kill?" But they were silent."<br />"And He looked around at them with anger, grieved at their hardness of heart, and said to the man, "Stretch out your hand." He stretched it out, and his hand was restored. The Pharisees went out, and immediately held counsel with the Herodians against Him, how to destroy Him."<br />"Jesus withdrew with His disciples to the sea, and a great multitude from <a href="http://www.keyway.ca/htm2002/galilee.htm">Galilee</a> followed; also from Judea and Jerusalem and <a href="http://www.keyway.ca/htm2001/20010521.htm">Idumea</a> and from beyond the Jordan and from about Tyre and Sidon a great multitude, hearing all that He did, came to Him." (Mark 3:1-8 RSV)<br />Jesus' famous "Render to Caesar the things that are Caesar's, and to God the things that are God's" was in response to an attempted set-up by the Herodians and Pharisees:<br />"And they sent to Him some of the Pharisees and some of the Herodians, to entrap Him in his talk. And they came and said to Him, "Teacher, we know that You are true, and care for no man; for You do not regard the position of men, but truly teach <a href="http://www.keyway.ca/htm2002/theway.htm">The Way</a> of God. Is it lawful to pay taxes to Caesar, or not? Should we pay them, or should we not?"<br />"But knowing their hypocrisy, He said to them, "Why put Me to the test? Bring me a coin, and let Me look at it." And they brought one. And He said to them, "Whose likeness and inscription is this?"<br />"They said to Him, "Caesar's."<br />"Jesus said to them, "Render to Caesar the things that are Caesar's, and to God the things that are God's."<br />"And they were amazed at Him." (Mark 12:13-17 RSV)<br /><br />The Herodians were a <a title="Sect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sect">sect</a> or party mentioned in the <a title="New Testament" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Testament">New Testament</a> as having on two occasions--once in <a title="Galilee" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galilee">Galilee</a>, and again in <a title="Jerusalem" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>--manifested an unfriendly disposition towards <a title="Jesus" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesus">Jesus</a> (<a class="external text" title="http://php.ug.cs.usyd.edu.au/~jnot4610/bibref.php?book=" verse="3:6&src=" href="http://php.ug.cs.usyd.edu.au/~jnot4610/bibref.php?book=%20Mark&verse=3:6&src=!" rel="nofollow">Mark 3:6</a>, <a class="external text" title="http://php.ug.cs.usyd.edu.au/~jnot4610/bibref.php?book=" verse="12:13&src=" href="http://php.ug.cs.usyd.edu.au/~jnot4610/bibref.php?book=%20Mark&verse=12:13&src=!" rel="nofollow">12:13</a>; <a class="external text" title="http://php.ug.cs.usyd.edu.au/~jnot4610/bibref.php?book=" verse="22:16&src=" href="http://php.ug.cs.usyd.edu.au/~jnot4610/bibref.php?book=%20Matthew&verse=22:16&src=!" rel="nofollow">Matthew 22:16</a>; cf. also <a class="external text" title="http://php.ug.cs.usyd.edu.au/~jnot4610/bibref.php?book=" verse="8:15&src=" href="http://php.ug.cs.usyd.edu.au/~jnot4610/bibref.php?book=%20Mark&verse=8:15&src=!" rel="nofollow">Mark 8:15</a>, <a class="external text" title="http://php.ug.cs.usyd.edu.au/~jnot4610/bibref.php?book=" verse="13:31-32&src=" href="http://php.ug.cs.usyd.edu.au/~jnot4610/bibref.php?book=%20Luke&verse=13:31-32&src=!" rel="nofollow">Luke 13:31-32</a>, <a class="external text" title="http://php.ug.cs.usyd.edu.au/~jnot4610/bibref.php?book=" verse="4:27&src=" href="http://php.ug.cs.usyd.edu.au/~jnot4610/bibref.php?book=%20Acts&verse=4:27&src=!" rel="nofollow">Acts 4:27</a>).<br />In each of these cases their name is coupled with that of the <a title="Pharisees" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharisees">Pharisees</a>. According to many interpreters the courtiers or soldiers of <a title="Herod Antipas" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herod_Antipas">Herod Antipas</a> ("Milites Herodis," <a title="Jerome" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerome">Jerome</a>) are intended; but more probably the Herodians were a public political party, who distinguished themselves from the two great historical parties of post-exilian Judaism (Pharisees and <a title="Sadducees" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadducees">Sadducees</a>) by the fact that they were and had been sincerely friendly to <a title="Herod the Great" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herod_the_Great">Herod the Great</a>, the <a title="King of the Jews" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_of_the_Jews">King of the Jews</a>, and to his <a title="Dynasty" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynasty">dynasty</a> (cf. such formations as "Caesariani," "Pompeiani").<br />It is possible that, to gain adherents, the Herodian party may have been in the habit of representing that the establishment of a <a title="Herodian Dynasty" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodian_Dynasty">Herodian Dynasty</a> would be favourable to the realization of the theocracy; and this in turn may account for <a title="Tertullian" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertullian">Tertullian</a>'s (De praescr.) allegation that the Herodians regarded Herod himself as the <a title="Messiah" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messiah">Messiah</a>. The sect was called by the Rabbis <a title="Boethusians" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boethusians">Boethusians</a> as being friendly to the family of <a title="Boethus" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boethus">Boethus</a>, whose daughter <a title="Mariamne (third wife of Herod)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariamne_%28third_wife_of_Herod%29">Mariamne</a> was one of Herod the Great's wives.<br />Priestly party under the reign of King Herod and his successors; called by the Rabbis "Boethusians," as adherents of the family of Boethus, whose daughter Mariamne was one of the wives of King Herod, and whose sons were successively made high priests by him. They followed the Sadducees in their opposition to the Pharisees, and were therefore often identified with the former (see Grätz, "Gesch." 4th ed., iii. 2, 693; <a class="cross" href="http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=1232&letter=B">Boethusians</a>). According to the Gospels, their plot against the life of Jesus was supported by the Pharisees (Mark iii. 6, xii. 13; Matt. xii. 16); wherefore Jesus warned his disciples, saying "Beware of the leaven of the Pharisees and of the leaven of Herod" (Mark viii. 15; Matt. xvi. 6 has "Pharisees" and "Sadducees"). "Leaven" is explained in Matt. xvi. 12 to mean "teaching," that is, "bad teaching" (comp. "se'or sheba-'isah" = "the leaven in the dough," corresponding to the "yeẓer ha-ra'"; Ber. 17a). This shows that the Herodians represented a religious party. In Luke xii. 1 the Herodians have been omitted altogether, and the Pharisees alone are represented as the enemies of Jesus; and in Luke xx. 19 the scribes and chief priests are mentioned in place of the Pharisees and the Herodians (see also Mark xii. 13; Matt. xxii. 15-16).<br />The Herodians were political partisans of Herod Antipas, the son of Herod the Great. They favored the policies of Herod. Herod was dependent on the Roman power and his adherents therefore maintained the propriety of paying tribute to Caesar which the Pharisees denied. The Herodians were keenly opposed to Jesus and Jesus opposed to them. The group was probably formed under Herod the Great and held to the right to pay homage to a sovereign who might be able to bring the friendship of Rome and other advantages, but who had personally no title to reign by law and by religion. On this question they differed from the Pharisees. They were something more than a political party, something less than a religious sect. They were not opposed to idolatrous worship, were in favor of instituting pagan games and denied any future life.<br /><br /><br />King Herod the Great<br /><br />Herod (73-4 BCE) was the pro-Roman king of the small Jewish state in the last decades before the common era. He started his career as a general, but the Roman statesman Mark Antony recognized him as the Jewish national leader. During a war against the <a href="http://www.livius.org/pan-paz/parthia/parthia02.html">Parthians</a>, Herod was removed from the scene, but the Roman <a href="http://www.livius.org/se-sg/senate/senator.html">Senate</a> made him king and gave him soldiers to seize the the throne. As 'friend and ally of the Romans' he was not a truly independent king; however, Rome allowed him a domestic policy of his own. Although Herod tried to respect the pious feeling of his subjects, many of them were not content with his rule, which ended in terror. He was succeeded by his sons.<br /><a href="http://www.livius.org/he-hg/herodians/herod_the_great01.html">Herod the Great I</a> <a href="http://www.livius.org/he-hg/herodians/herod_the_great02.html">Herod the Great II</a> <a href="http://www.livius.org/he-hg/herodians/herod_archelaus.htm">Herod Archelaus</a> <a href="http://www.livius.org/he-hg/herodians/herod_antipas.html">Herod Antipas</a> <a href="http://www.livius.org/he-hg/herodians/philip.htm">Philip</a> <a href="http://www.livius.org/he-hg/herodians/herod_agrippa_i.html">Herod Agrippa</a> <a href="http://www.livius.org/he-hg/herodians/julius_m_agrippa_ii.html">Julius Marcus Agrippa</a><br /><a href="http://www.livius.org/a/1/maps/israel4_map.gif"></a>Herod's kingdom (<a href="http://www.livius.org/mail2.html">©**</a>)<br /><a name="Reign"></a>Herod's reignHerod's monarchy was based on foreign weapons; the start of his reign had been marked by bloodshed. His first aim was to establish his rule on a more solid base. Almost immediately, he sent envoys to the Parthian king to get Hyrcanus back from <a href="http://www.livius.org/ba-bd/babylon/babylon.html">Babylon</a>. The Parthian king was happy to let the old man go, because he was becoming dangerously popular among the Jews living in Babylonia. Although Hyrcanus was unfit to become high priest again, Herod kept his father-in-law in high esteem. The support of the old monarch gave an appearance of legality to his own rule.<br />The new king started an extensive building program: Jews could take pride in the new walls of Jerusalem and the citadel which guarded its Temple. (This fortress was called Antonia, in order to please Herod's patron Mark Antony.) Coins were minted in his own name and showed an incense burner on a tripod, intended to signify Herod's care for the orthodox Jewish cult practices. These coins had a Greek legend -HÈRÔDOU BASILEÔS- which indicates that Herod considered his standing abroad. And the new king continued to please the Romans, to make sure that they would continue their support. He sent lavish presents to their representative in the East, Mark Antony, and to his mistress, the Egyptian queen <a href="http://www.livius.org/cg-cm/cleopatra/cleopatra00.html">Cleopatra</a>.<br />These gifts almost were Herod's undoing. The relations between on the one hand Mark Antony and Cleopatra in the East and on the other hand Octavian and the <a href="http://www.livius.org/se-sg/senate/senator.html">Senate</a> in the West became strained, and civil war broke out in 31. It did not last very long: in August, the western leader defeated the eastern leader, who fled to <a href="http://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexandria/alexandria.html">Alexandria</a>. For the first time in his life, Herod had aligned himself with a looser.<br /> <br /><br /><br /> (<a href="http://www.livius.org/mail2.html">©!!</a>)<br />He managed to solve this problem, however. First, he had Hyrcanus executed, making sure that no one else could claim his throne. Then, he sailed to the island of Rhodes, where he met Octavian. In a brilliant speech, Herod boasted of his loyalty to Mark Antony, and promised the same to the new master of the Roman Empire. Octavian was impressed by the man's audacity, confirmed Herod's monarchy, and even added the coast of Judaea and <a href="http://www.livius.org/saa-san/samaria/samarians.htm">Samaria</a> to his realm. Actually, Octavian did not have much choice: his opponents were still alive, and if he were to pursue them to Egypt, Herod could be a useful ally. As it turned out, Mark Antony and Cleopatra preferred death to surrender, and Octavian became the only ruler in the Roman world. Under the name <a href="http://www.livius.org/au-az/augustus/augustus.html">Augustus</a>, he became the first emperor. He rewarded his ally with new possessions: a.o. Jericho and Gaza, which had been independent.<br /><br />Macherus (<a href="http://www.livius.org/mail2.html">©!!!</a>)<br /><a name="Earthquake"></a>Herod's position was still insecure. He continued his building policy to win the hearts of his subjects. (A severe earthquake in 31 BCE had destroyed many houses, killing thousands of people.) In Jerusalem, the king built a new market, an amphitheater, a theater, a new building where the Sanhedrin could convene, a new royal palace, and last but not least, in 20 BCE he started to rebuild the Temple. And there were other cities where he ordered new buildings to be placed: Jericho and Samaria are examples. New fortresses served the security of both the Jews and their king: Herodion, Machaereus and Masada are among them.<br /><a name="Caesarea"></a>But Herod's crowning achievement was a splendid new port, called Caesarea in honor of the emperor (the harbor was called Sebastos, the Greek translation of 'Augustus'). This magnificent and opulent city, which was dedicated in 9 BCE, was build to rival Alexandria in the land trade to <a href="http://www.livius.org/ap-ark/arabia/arabia.html">Arabia</a>, from where spices, perfume and incense were imported. It was not an oriental town like Jerusalem; it was laid out on a Greek grid plan, with a market, an aqueduct, government offices, baths, villas, a circus, and pagan temples. (The most important of these was the temple where the emperor was worshipped; it commanded the port.) The port was a masterpiece of engineering: its piers were made from hydraulic concrete (which hardens underwater) and protected by unique wave-breaking structures.<br />Although Herod was a dependent client-king, he had a foreign policy of his own. He had already defeated the Arabs from Petra in 31, and repeated this in 9 BCE. The Romans did not like this independent behavior, but on the whole, they seem to have been very content with their king of Judaea. After all, he sent auxiliaries when they decided to send an army to the mysterious <a href="http://www.livius.org/ap-ark/arabia/arabia.html#trade">incense country</a> (modern Yemen; 25 BCE). In 23, Iturea and the Golan heights were added to Herod's realms, and in 20 several other districts.<br />With building projects, the expansion of his territories, the establishment of a sound bureaucracy, and the development of economic resources, he did much for his country, at least on a material level. The standing of his country -foreign and at home- was certainly enhanced. However, many of his projects won him the bitter hatred of the orthodox Jews, who disliked Herod's Greek taste - a taste he showed not only in his building projects, but also in several transgressions of the Mosaic Law.<br />The orthodox were not to only ones who came to hate the new king. The <a href="http://www.livius.org/saa-san/sadducees/sadducees.html">Sadducees</a> hated him because he had terminated the rule of the old royal house to which many of them were related; their own influence in the Sanhedrin was curtailed. The Pharisees despised any ruler who despised the Law. <a name="Tax"></a>And probably all his subjects resented his excessive taxation. According to <a href="http://www.livius.org/jo-jz/josephus/josephus.htm">Flavius Josephus</a>, there were two taxes in kind at annual rates equivalent to 10.7% and 8.6%, which is extremely high in any preindustrial society (Jewish Antiquities 14.202-206). It comes as no surprise that Herod sometimes had to revert to violence, employing mercenaries and a secret police to enforce order.<br /><a href="http://www.livius.org/a/1/judaea/coin_herod_bm.JPG"></a>Coin of king Herod (British Museum)<br />On moments like that, it was clear to anyone that Herod was not a Jewish but a Roman king. He had become the ruler of the Jews with Roman help and he boasted to be philokaisar ('the emperor's friend'), entertaining <a href="http://www.livius.org/vi-vr/vipsanius/agrippa.html">Agrippa</a>, Augustus' right-hand man. On top of the gate of the new Temple, a golden eagle was erected, a symbol of Roman power in the heart of the holy city resented by all pious believers. Worse, Augustus ordered and paid the priests of the Temple to sacrifice twice a day on behalf of himself, the Roman senate and people. The Jewish populace started to believe rumors that their pagan ruler had violated Jewish tombs, stealing golden objects from the tomb of David and Solomon.<br />Herod concluded ten marriages, all for political purposes. They were probably all unhappy. His wives were:<br />Doris, from an unknown family in Jerusalem: married c.47, sent away 37; recalled 14, sent away 7/6.<br />She was the mother of Antipater, who was executed in 4.<br />The <a href="http://www.livius.org/ha-hd/hasmonaeans/hasmonaeans.htm">Hasmonaean</a> princess Mariamme I: married 37, executed in 29/28. According to Flavius Josephus, Herod was passionately devoted to this woman, but she hated him just as passionately.<br />Five children: Alexander, Aristobulus, a nameless son, Salampsio and Cyprus.<br />An unknown niece: married 37. No children.<br />An unknown cousin: married c.34/33. No children.<br />The daughter of a Jerusalem priest named Simon, Mariamme II: married 29/28, divorced 7/6.<br />They had a son named Herod.<br />A Samarian woman named Malthace: married 28, died 5/4.<br />Their children were <a href="http://www.livius.org/he-hg/herodians/herod_antipas.html">Antipas</a>, <a href="http://www.livius.org/he-hg/herodians/herod_archelaus.htm">Archelaus</a> and Olympias.<br />A Jerusalem woman named Cleopatra: married 28.<br />They had two sons named, Herod and <a href="http://www.livius.org/he-hg/herodians/philip.htm">Philip</a>.<br />Pallas: married 16.<br />They had a son named Phasael.<br />Phaedra: married 16.<br />They had a daughter named Roxane.<br />Elpis: married 16.<br />They had a daughter named Salome.<br /><a name="Judas+Matthias"></a>Herod's reign ended in terror. The monastery at Qumran, the home of the Essenes, suffered a violent and deliberate destruction by fire in 8 BCE, for which Herod may have been responsible. When the king fell ill, two popular teachers, Judas and Matthias, incited their pupils to remove the golden eagle from the entrance of the Temple: after all, according to the Ten Commandments, it was a sin to make idols. The teachers and the pupils were burned alive. Some Jewish scholars had discovered that seventy-six generations had passed since the Creation, and there was a well-known prophecy that the <a href="http://www.livius.org/men-mh/messiah/messiah00.html">Messiah</a> was to deliver <a href="http://www.livius.org/io-iz/israel/concept.html">Israel</a> from its foreign rulers in the seventy-seventh generation (<a href="http://www.livius.org/men-mh/messiah/messiah_15a.html">more...</a>). The story about the slaughter of infants of Bethlehem in the second chapter of the Gospel of Matthew is not known from other sources, but it would have been totally in character for the later Herod to commit such a terrible act.<br /><a name="Aristobulus"></a>A horrible disease (probably a cancer-like affection called Fournier's gangrene) made acute the problem of Herod's succession, and the result was factional strife in his family. Shortly before his death, Herod decided against his sons Aristobulus and Antipater, who were executed in 7 and 4 BCE, causing the emperor Augustus to joke that it was preferable to be Herod's pig (hus) than his son (huios) - a very insulting remark to any Jew.<br />However, the emperor confirmed Herod's last will. After his death in 4 BCE, the kingdom was divided among his sons. <a href="http://www.livius.org/he-hg/herodians/herod_antipas.html">Herod Antipas</a> was to rule Galilee and the east bank of the Jordan as a tetrarch; <a href="http://www.livius.org/he-hg/herodians/philip.htm">Philip</a> was to be tetrarch of the Golan heights in the north-east; and <a href="http://www.livius.org/he-hg/herodians/herod_archelaus.htm">Archelaus</a> became the ethnarch ('national leader') of Samaria and Judaea. Herod was buried in one of the fortresses he had build, Herodion. Few will have wept. <br /><a name="Literature"></a>LiteratureThe most important ancient source for the rule of king Herod was written by <a href="http://www.livius.org/jo-jz/josephus/josephus.htm">Flavius Josephus</a>: the Jewish War and the Jewish Antiquities. Both books are based on the history of Nicolaus of Damascus, king Herod's personal secretary. Modern literature: Nikos Kokkinos, The Herodian Dynasty. Origins, Role in Society and Eclipse (1998 Sheffield) and D.W. Roller, The Building Program of Herod the Great (1998) supplement each other.<br /> <a href="http://www.livius.org/">home</a> : <a href="http://www.livius.org/judaea.html">Judaea</a> : <a href="http://www.livius.org/catalogue.html">index</a>Duke Eversmeyerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12979421184987312497noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7936381627778855349.post-45027976438714615152007-12-29T08:44:00.000-08:002007-12-29T11:27:32.189-08:00Lesson 13 Pharisees & SadduceesPharisees<br />Advanced Information<br />The Pharisees were an important Jewish group which flourished in Palestine from the late second century B.C. to the late first century A.D.<br /><br /><br />Sources<br />Virtually all our knowledge about the Pharisees is derived from three sets of sources: the works of the Jewish historian Flavius Josephus, The Jewish War (ca. A.D. 75), The Antiquities of the Jews (ca. A.D. 94), and Life (ca. A.D. 101); the various compilations of the rabbis (ca. A.D. 200 and later); and the NT. Other works, parts of the Apocrypha, the Pseudepigrapha, or the Dead Sea Scrolls, may also contain information concerning the Pharisees. But since the Pharisees are never explicitly mentioned in these works, their use in constructing a picture of the Pharisees is heavily dependent on prior assumptions which are at best speculative.<br />It should be noted, however, that even the use of the explicit sources is problematical. Most of the NT is written from a point of view that is antagonistic to the tenets of Pharisaism. The rabbinic traditions about the Pharisees are also shaped by polemical forces and are often anachronistic. The value of Josephus's information (traditionally regarded as the most helpful) is diminished by recent studies which suggest that Josephus was not a Pharisee before A.D. 70 and that his eventual conversion was motivated more by political realities than by careful study of the different Jewish sects. It certainly cannot be denied that Josephus's descriptions of the Pharisees are superficial. In short, therefore, our sources provide neither a complete nor a straightforward picture of the Pharisees.<br /><br /><br />Name<br />Various etymologies have been proposed for the name "Pharisee." The only one to receive general approval is that which derives the name from the Aramaic passive participle peris, perisayya, meaning "separated." The consensus is that the Pharisees regarded themselves, or were regarded, as the "separated ones." From what or whom they were separated is not as clear. The Hasmonean rulers, the Gentiles, the common people, and non-Pharisaic Jews in general have all been suggested as possibilities. Present evidence seems to favor the last two options.<br /><br />Nature and Influence<br />The fundamental issue in Pharisaic studies is the twofold question of the nature of the group and its influence within broader Judaism. Two basic positions have been taken on this question. The traditional view holds that the Pharisees were the creators and shapers of late second temple Judaism. They were not so much a sect as a dominant party within Judaism. According to the traditional view, although not all Pharisees were legal experts, Pharisaism was the ideology of the vast majority of the scribes and lawyers. Thus, as a group the Pharisees were the guardians and interpreters of the law. Jewish institutions associated with the law, such as the synagogue and the Sanhedrin, were Pharisaic institutions. While disagreeing over whether the Pharisees were primarily politically or religiously oriented, proponents of the traditional view agree that the Pharisees commanded the loyalty of the masses in both spheres. Indeed, most proponents of the traditional view would accept Elias Bickerman's dictum: "Judaism of the post-Maccabean period is Pharisaic."<br />The second point of view is a relatively recent development. Proponents of this position argue that when the inherent limitations and tendencies of our sources are taken into account, the Pharisees come across not as the creators and shapers of Judaism but merely as one of its many expressions. In essence, according to this view, the Pharisees were a rather tightly knit sect organized around the observance of purity and tithing laws; on most other issues the Pharisees reflected the range of views present within Judaism. Since Josephus and the Gospels carefully distinguish between the Pharisees and the scribes, scholars of this persuasion argue that it is better not to confuse Pharisaism with the ideology of the scribes. Pharisaism must be seen as a movement which drew from all walks of life. There were Pharisees who were political and religious leaders, but their positions of influence were due to other factors besides sectarian affiliation. Proponents of this second view posit that the Judaism of Christ's day was much more dynamic and variegated than the traditional view allows and that the Pharisees were only one of several sects that influenced the development of Judaism.<br /><br />Of course, not all scholars subscribe to one of these two views; many hold mediating positions. Nevertheless, these two views constitute the foundations upon which the modern study of Pharisaism is based.<br /><br /><br />History<br />The origin of the Pharisaic movement is shrouded in mystery. According to Josephus, the Pharisees first became a significant force in Jewish affairs during the reign of Hyrcanus I (134-104 B.C.). In an earlier work, however, Josephus places the rise of the Pharisees much later, during the reign of Salome Alexandra (76-67 B.C.). Some scholars who view the Pharisees as the shapers of late second temple Judaism have sought to trace the beginnings of the group back to the time of Ezra and beyond. But such reconstructions are speculative at best. It is more likely that the Pharisees were one of several groups to grow out of the revival and resistance movement of the Maccabean period (ca. 166-160 B.C.).<br />Whatever its origins, the Pharisaic movement seems to have undergone a two-stage development. During the reign of Salome Alexandra the Pharisees as a group were heavily involved in politics and national policy making. Sometime after this, possibly when Herod the Great rose to power (37 B.C.), the Pharisees withdrew from politics. Individual Pharisees remained politically involved, but there was no longer any official Pharisaic political agenda. This seems to have been the situation during the time of Christ.<br /><br />The Pharisees were divided over the issue of Roman rule. Josephus tells us that a Pharisee named Zaddok was instrumental in forming a "fourth philosophy" which was violently opposed to Roman rule. Elsewhere, however, Josephus records that at a later time certain well-placed Pharisees sought to forestall the Jews' rush toward revolt against the empire. It is impossible to tell which tendency reflected the conviction of the majority of the Pharisees.<br /><br />After the Jewish revolt of A.D. 70 many scholars with Pharisaic leanings gathered at the city of Jamnia to form a school for the preservation and redefinition of Judaism. There is evidence that the Jamnia school was not exclusively Pharisaic. Nevertheless, it can be safely said that the Pharisees were the single most powerful sectarian element at Jamnia. Thus they played an important role at the beginning of the century-long process which transformed second temple Judaism into rabbinic Judaism.<br /><br /><br />Beliefs<br />The Pharisees were strongly committed to the daily application and observance of the law. This means they accepted the traditional elaborations of the law which made daily application possible. They believed, moreover, in the existence of spirits and angels, the resurrection, and the coming of a Messiah. They also maintained that the human will enjoyed a limited freedom within the sovereign plan of God.<br />Yet there is little evidence to suggest that these were distinctively Pharisaic beliefs. To the best of our knowledge these beliefs were the common heritage of most Jews. To some scholars this fact is proof that the Pharisees were the dominant religious force in Judaism; to others it is only another indication that the Pharisees' distinguishing mark was nothing but the scrupulous observance of purity and tithing laws.<br /><br /><br />The Pharisees and Jesus<br />The NT does not present a simple picture of the relationship between the Pharisees and Jesus. Pharisees warn Jesus of a plot against his life (Luke 13:31); in spite of their dietary scruples they invite him for meals (Luke 7:36-50; 14:1); some of them even believe in Jesus (John 3:1; 7:45-53; 9:13-38); later, Pharisees are instrumental in ensuring the survival of Jesus' followers (Acts 5:34; 23:6-9).<br />Nevertheless, Pharisaic opposition to Jesus is a persistent theme in all four Gospels. This opposition has been explained differently by those who hold differing views on the nature and influence of the Pharisees. Those who see the Pharisees as a class of political leaders posit that Jesus came to be understood as a political liability or threat. Those who understand the Pharisees as a society of legal and religious experts suggest that Jesus became viewed as a dangerous rival, a false teacher with antinomian tendencies. To the extent that there were Pharisaic leaders and scribes, both these factors probably played a part. Yet other scholars point out that according to the Gospels the disputes between Jesus and the Pharisees centered primarily on the validity and application of purity, tithing, and sabbath laws (e.g., Matt. 12:2, 12-14; 15:1-12; Mark 2:16; Luke 11:39-42). In the light of this evidence it would seem that at least part of the Pharisaic opposition to Jesus was occasioned by the obvious disparity between Jesus' claims about himself and his disregard for observances regarded by the Pharisees as necessary marks of piety. In the end, the Pharisees could not reconcile Jesus, his actions and his claims, with their own understanding of piety and godliness.<br /><br />--------------------------------------------------------------------------------<br /><br />Pharisees<br />Advanced Information<br />The Pharisees were separatists (Heb. persahin, from parash, "to separate"). They were probably the successors of the Assideans (i.e., the "pious"), a party that originated in the time of Antiochus Epiphanes in revolt against his heathenizing policy. The first mention of them is in a description by Josephus of the three sects or schools into which the Jews were divided (B.C. 145). The other two sects were the Essenes and the Sadducees. In the time of our Lord they were the popular party (John 7:48). They were extremely accurate and minute in all matters appertaining to the law of Moses (Matt. 9:14; 23:15; Luke 11:39; 18:12). Paul, when brought before the council of Jerusalem, professed himself a Pharisee (Acts 23:6-8; 26:4, 5).<br /><br />There was much that was sound in their creed, yet their system of religion was a form and nothing more. Theirs was a very lax morality (Matt. 5:20; 15:4, 8; 23:3, 14, 23, 25; John 8:7). On the first notice of them in the New Testament (Matt. 3:7), they are ranked by our Lord with the Sadducees as a "generation of vipers." They were noted for their self-righteousness and their pride (Matt. 9:11; Luke 7: 39; 18: 11, 12). They were frequently rebuked by our Lord (Matt. 12:39; 16:1-4). From the very beginning of his ministry the Pharisees showed themselves bitter and persistent enemies of our Lord. They could not bear his doctrines, and they sought by every means to destroy his influence among the people.<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />--------------------------------------------------------------------------------<br /><br />Of the three major religious societies of Judaism at the time of the New Testament (the Pharisees, the Sadducees, and the Essenes), the Pharisees were often the most vocal and influential. The origin of the Pharisees is uncertain, but their movement is believed to have grown from the Assideans (i.e. the "pious"), who began in the time of the Maccabean Revolt (see The Maccabees) against the Greek/Syrian ruler Antiochus IV, or "Antiochus Epiphanes," around 165 B.C. It was during that roughly 4 centuries between the end of the Old Testament record and the birth of Jesus Christ, prior to the rise of the Roman empire (see Ancient Empires - Rome), that the idolatrous Greek influence was at its peak in Jerusalem (see Ancient Empires - Greece, The Ptolemies and The Seleucids). The first direct mention of the Pharisees was by the Jewish/Roman historian Flavius Josephus in describing the three sects, or schools, into which the Jews were divided in 145 B.C.<br />The name Pharisee in its Hebrew form means separatists, or the separated ones. They were also known as chasidim, which means loyal to God, or loved of God - extremely ironic in view of the fact that by His time, they made themselves the most bitter, and deadly, opponents of Jesus Christ and His message.<br /><br />The Pharisees perhaps meant to obey God, but eventually they became so devoted and extremist in very limited parts of The Law (plus all that they themselves added to it), that they became blind to The Messiah when He was in their very midst. They saw His miracles, they heard His Words, but instead of receiving it with joy, they did all that they could to stop Him - eventually to the point of getting Him killed because He truthfully claimed to be the Son of God.<br /><br />Jesus Christ had strong words about the Pharisees, and what awaits some of them:<br /><br /><br />"For I tell you, unless your righteousness exceeds that of the scribes [see Lawyers] and Pharisees, you will never enter the kingdom of heaven." (Matthew 5:20 RSV).<br />"He answered them, "And why do you transgress the Commandment of God for the sake of your tradition? For God commanded, 'Honor your father and your mother,' and, 'He who speaks evil of father or mother, let him surely die.' But you say, 'If any one tells his father or his mother, What you would have gained from me is given to God, he need not honor his father.' So, for the sake of your tradition, you have made void the Word of God." (Matthew 15:3-6 RSV) [see The Ten Commandments and The Ten Commandments Now?].<br /><br />"How is it that you fail to perceive that I did not speak about bread? Beware of the leaven of the Pharisees and Sadducees." Then they understood that He did not tell them to beware of the leaven of bread, but of the teaching of the Pharisees and Sadducees." (Matthew 16:11-12 RSV)<br />(Note: Just as yeast causes bread to rise, yeast was sometimes used as a symbol of sinful pride which made people haughty and "puffed up.")<br /><br />"The scribes and the Pharisees sit on Moses' seat; so practice and observe whatever they tell you, but not what they do; for they preach, but do not practice. They bind heavy burdens, hard to bear, and lay them on men's shoulders; but they themselves will not move them with their finger. They do all their deeds to be seen by men; for they make their phylacteries broad and their fringes long, and they love the place of honor at feasts and the best seats in the synagogues, and salutations in the market places, and being called rabbi by men. But you are not to be called rabbi, for you have one teacher, and you are all brethren. And call no man your father on earth, for you have one Father, who is in heaven." (Matthew 23:2-9 RSV)<br />(Note: A perhaps somewhat surprising statement - the Pharisees were correct according to their limited perspective, and were to be obeyed by the Jews under their authority. But, they were not to be emulated in their way of life - they were Hypocrites.)<br /><br />"But woe to you, scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites! because you shut the kingdom of heaven against men; for you neither enter yourselves, nor allow those who would enter to go in." (Matthew 23:13 RSV).<br /><br />"Woe to you, scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites! for you tithe mint and dill and cummin, and have neglected the weightier matters of the Law, justice and mercy and faith; these you ought to have done, without neglecting the others. You blind guides, straining out a gnat and swallowing a camel!" (Matthew 23:23-24)<br /><br />The lesson from the Pharisees' example is that self-righteousness is not righteousness, and that God's true people are to live according to all of God's Word, not just certain parts that are most convenient or to one's own liking.<br />The Sadducees were members of a Jewish sect founded in the second century BC, possibly as a political party. They ceased to exist sometime after the first century AD. The word Sadducee is possibly from the Hebrew Tsdoki צדוקי [sˤə.ðo.'qi], from which comes the alternate name Zadokites and other variants<br /><br />[edit] Etymology<br />The Hebrew name, Tsdoki, indicates their claim that they are the followers of the teachings of the High Priest Tsadok, often spelled Zadok, who anointed Solomon king at the start of the First Temple Period. F. Bruce claims that this explanation is unlikely since they make their début in history as supporters of the Hasmonaean high priests. He therefore suggests that 'Sadducees' (Heb. צַדּוּקִים) is a Hebraization of the Greek word συνδικοι sündikoi ('syndics', 'members of the council') and that it marks them out as the councillors of the Hasmonaeans; although they themselves came to associate the word with the Heb. צַדִּיק, 'righteous'.[1]<br /><br />Rabbinic tradition suggests that they were not named after the High Priest Zadok, but rather another Zadok (who may still have been a priest), who rebelled against the teachings of Antigonus of Soko, a government official of Judea in the 3rd century BCE and a predecessor of the Rabbinic tradition.<br /><br /><br />[edit] History<br />While little or none of their own writings have been preserved, the Sadducees seem to have indeed been a priestly group, associated with the leadership of the Temple in Jerusalem. Possibly, Sadducees represent the aristocratic clan of the Hasmonean high priests, who replaced the previous high priestly lineage that had allowed the Syrian Emperor Antiochus IV Epiphanes to desecrate the Temple of Jerusalem with idolatrous sacrifices and to martyr monotheistic Jews. The Jewish holiday of Hanukkah celebrates the ousting of the Syrian forces, the rededication of the Temple, and the installment of the new Hasmonean priestly line. The Hasmoneans ruled as "priest-kings", claiming both titles high priest and king simultaneously, and like other aristocracies across the Hellenistic world became increasingly influenced by Hellenistic syncretism and Greek philosophies: presumably Stoicism, and apparently Epicureanism in the Talmudic tradition criticizing the anti-Torah philosophy of the "Apikorsus" אפיקורסוס (i.e., Epicurus) refers to the Hasmonean clan qua Sadducees. Like Epicureans, Sadducees rejected the existence of an afterlife, thus denied the Pharisaic doctrine of the Resurrection of the Dead.<br /><br />The Dead Sea Scrolls community, who are probably Essenes, were led by a high priestly leadership, who are thought to be the descendents of the "legitimate" high priestly lineage, which the Hasmoneans ousted. The Dead Sea Scrolls bitterly opposed the current high priests of the Temple. Since Hasmoneans constituted a different priestly line, it was in their political interest to emphasize their family's priestly pedigree that descended from their ancestor, the high priest Zadok, who had the authority to anoint the kingship of Solomon, son of David.<br /><br />Most of what is known about the Sadducees comes from Josephus, who wrote that they were a quarrelsome group whose followers were wealthy and powerful, and that he considered them boorish in social interactions (see Josephus's Wars of the Jews, Book II, Chapter VIII, Paragraph 14). We know something of them from discussions in the Talmud (mainly the Jerusalem), the core work of rabbinic Judaism, which is based on the teachings of Pharisaic Judaism.<br /><br /><br />[edit] Beliefs<br />Sadducees rejected the Pharisaic tenet of an oral Torah, and created new interpretations based on a literal understanding of verses. In their personal lives this often meant an excessively stringent lifestyle from a Jewish perspective, as they did away with the oral tradition, and in turn the authentic Jewish understanding of the Torah. An example of this problematic approach is the interpretation of, "an eye for an eye". The Jewish understanding for centuries was that the value of an eye was to be sought by the perpetrator rather than actually removing his eye too. In their view the law was now to be taken literally. In other words, the Sadducees wished to change the Jewish understanding of the Torah.<br /><br />R' Yitchak Isaac Halevi suggests that while there is evidence of a Sadducee sect from the times of Ezra, it emerged as major force only after the Hashmenite rebellion. The reason for this was not, in fact, a matter of religion. He claims that as complete rejection of Judaism would not have been tolerated under the Hasmonean rule, the Hellenists joined the Sadducees maintaining that they were rejecting not Judaism but Rabbinic law. Thus, the Sadducees were for the most part a political party and not a religious sect (Dorot Ha'Rishonim).<br /><br />Schiffman also cites interpretations of the purity regulations which closely parallel Sadducean views recorded by the spiritual heirs of the Pharisees, who authored the Talmud.</ref> that there was an internal schism among those called "Sadducees" - some who rejected Angels, the Soul, and Resurrection - and some which accepted these teachings and the entirety of the Hebrew Bible.<br /><br />In regard to criminal jurisdiction they were so rigorous that the day on which their code was abolished by the Pharisaic Sanhedrin under Simeon ben Shetah's leadership, during the reign of Salome Alexandra, was celebrated as a festival. The Sadducees are said to have insisted on the literal execution of the law of retaliation: "Eye for eye, tooth for tooth", which pharisaic Judaism, and later rabbinic Judaism, rejected. On the other hand, they would not inflict the death penalty on false witnesses in a case where capital punishment had been wrongfully carried out, unless the accused had been executed solely in consequence of the testimony of such witnesses.<br /><br />According to the Talmud, they granted the daughter the same right of inheritance as the son in case the son was dead.(see chapter Yeish Nochalin of the Babylonain Talmud, tractate Bava Batra) Emet L' Yaakov explains that the focus of their argument was theological. The question was whether there is an afterlife (see above), and if there is, can the dead person be in the line of inheritance as if they were alive.<br /><br />According to the Talmud, they contended that the seven weeks from the first barley-sheaf-offering ("omer") to Shavuot (Pentecost in Christian reference) should, according to Leviticus 23:15-16, be counted from "the day after Sabbath," and, consequently, that Shavuot should always be celebrated on the first day of the week (Meg. Ta'an. i.; Men. 65a). In this they followed a literal reading of the Bible which regards the festival of the firstlings as having no direct connection with Passover, while the Pharisees, connecting the festival of the Exodus with the festival of the giving of the Law, interpreted the "morrow after the Sabbath" to signify the second day of Passover.<br /><br />In regard to rituals at the Temple in Jerusalem:<br /><br />They held that the daily burnt offerings were to be offered by the high priest at his own expense, whereas the Pharisees contended that they were to be furnished as a national sacrifice at the cost of the Temple treasury into which taxes were paid.<br />They held that the meal offering belonged to the priest's portion; whereas the Pharisees claimed it for the altar.<br />They insisted on an especially high degree of purity in those who officiated at the preparation of the ashes of the Red Heifer. The Pharisees, by contrast, opposed such strictness.<br />They declared that the kindling of the incense in the vessel with which the high priest entered the Holy of Holies on the Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur) was to take place outside, so that he might be wrapped in smoke while meeting the Shekhinah within, according to Lev. xvi. 2; whereas the Pharisees, denying the high priest the claim of such supernatural vision, insisted that the incense be kindled within.<br />They opposed the popular festivity of the water libation and the procession preceding it on each night of the Sukkot feast.<br />They opposed the Pharisaic assertion that the scrolls of the Holy Scriptures have, like any holy vessel, the power to render ritually unclean the hands that touch them.<br />They opposed the Pharisaic idea of the eruv, the merging of several private precincts into one in order to admit of the carrying of food and vessels from one house to another on the Sabbath.<br />In dating all civil documents they used the phrase "after the high priest of the Most High," and they opposed the formula introduced by the Pharisees in divorce documents, "According to the law of Moses and Israel".<br />Ben Sira, one of the Deuterocanonical books, is believed by many scholars to have been by a Sadducee[citation needed]. (Note, the Talmud says clearly he was rejected by the Sadducees.)<br /><br />[edit] Reliability of claims<br />None of the writings we have about Sadducees present their own side of these controversies, and it is possible that positions attributed to "Sadducees" in later literature such as Josephus are meant as rhetorical foils for whatever opinion the author wishes to present, and do not in fact represent the teachings of the sect. [2] Yet, although these texts were written long after these periods, many scholars have said that they are a fairly reliable account of history during the Second Temple era.<br /><br /><br />[edit] Legendary origin<br />Josephus relates nothing concerning the origin of the Sadducees; he knows only that the three "sects" — the Pharisees, Essenes, and Sadducees — dated back to "very ancient times" (Ant. xviii. 1, § 2), which point to a time prior to John Hyrcanus (ib. xiii. 8, § 6) or the Maccabean war (ib. xiii. 5, § 9).<br /><br />Among the rabbis of the second century the following legend circulated: Antigonus of Soko, successor of Simeon the Just, the last of the Men of the Great Assembly, and consequently living at the time of the influx of Hellenistic ideas (i.e., Hellenization), taught the maxim, "Be not like servants who serve their master for the sake of a reward, but be rather like those who serve without thought of receiving a reward" (Avot 1:3); whereupon two of his disciples, Zadok and Boethus, mistaking the high ethical purport of the maxim, arrived at the conclusion that there was no future retribution, saying, "What servant would work all day without obtaining his due reward in the evening?" Instantly they broke away from the Law and lived in great luxury, using many silver and gold vessels at their banquets; and they established schools which declared the enjoyment of this life to be the goal of man, at the same time pitying the Pharisees for their bitter privation in this world with no hope of another world to compensate them. These two schools were called, after their founders, Sadducees and Boethusians.<br /><br /><br />[edit] New Testament/Greek Scriptures<br />The Sadducees are mentioned in the New Testament/Greek Scriptures of the Christian Bible. The Gospel of Matthew indicates that the Sadducees did not believe in the resurrection of the dead. Matthew 22:29, 31-32 says:<br /><br />29 In reply Jesus said to them: “You are mistaken, because you know neither the Scriptures nor the power of God ... [30] ... 31 As regards the resurrection of the dead, did you not read what was spoken to you by God, saying, 32 ‘I am the God of Abraham and the God of Isaac and the God of Jacob’? He is the God, not of the dead, but of the living.”<br />The Acts of the Apostles likewise indicates that Sadducees did not share the Pharisees’ belief in a resurrection; Paul starts a conflict during his trial, by claiming that his accusers were motivated by his advocacy of the doctrine of the resurrection (in an aside, Acts 23:8 asserts that “The Sadducees say that there is no resurrection, or angel, or spirit; but the Pharisees acknowledge all three”).<br /><br /><br />The End of the Sadducees<br />Being associated closely with the Temple in Jerusalem, after the Temple was destroyed in 70 CE the Sadducees vanish from history as a group. There is, however, some evidence that Sadducees survived as a minority group within Judaism up until early medieval times. In refutations of Sadducean beliefs, Karaite Sages such as Ya'akov al-Qirqisani quoted one of their texts, which was called Sefer Zadok. Translations into English of some of these quotes can be found in Zvi Cahn's "Rise of the Karaite sect".<br /><br />From the Hebrew Encyclopedia<br /><br /><a name="221">Name from High Priest Zadok.</a><br />Name given to the party representing views and practises of the Law and interests of Temple and priesthood directly opposite to those of the <a class="cross" href="http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=252&letter=P">Pharisees</a>. The singular form, "Ẓadduḳi" (Greek, Σαδδουκαῖος), is an adjective denoting "an adherent of the Bene Ẓadoḳ," the descendants of Zadok, the high priests who, tracing their pedigree back to Zadok, the chief of the priesthood in the days of David and Solomon (I Kings i. 34, ii. 35; I Chron. xxix. 22), formed the Temple hierarchy all through the time of the First and Second Temples down to the days of Ben Sira (II Chron. xxxi. 10; Ezek. xl. 46, xliv. 15, xlviii. 11; Ecclus. [Sirach] li. 12 [9], Hebr.), but who degenerated under the influence of Hellenism, especially during the rule of the Seleucidæ, when to be a follower of the priestly aristocracy was tantamount to being a worldly-minded Epicurean. The name, probably coined by the Ḥasidim as opponents of the Hellenists, became in the course of time a party name applied to all the aristocratic circles connected with the high priests by marriage and other social relations, as only the highest patrician families intermarried with the priests officiating at the Temple in Jerusalem (Ḳid. iv. 5; Sanh. iv. 2; comp. Josephus, "B. J." ii. 8, § 14). "Haughty men these priests are, saying which woman is fit to be married by us, since our father is high priest, our uncles princes and rulers, and we presiding officers at the Temple"—these words, put into the mouth of Nadab and Abihu (Tan., Aḥare Mot, ed. Buber, 7; Pesiḳ. 172b; Midr. Teh. to Ps. lxxviii. 18), reflect exactly the opinion prevailing among the Pharisees concerning the Sadducean priesthood (comp. a similar remark about the "haughty" aristocracy of Jerusalem in Shab. 62b). The Sadducees, says Josephus, have none but the rich on their side ("Ant." xiii. 10, § 6). The party name was retained long after the Zadokite high priests had made way for the Hasmonean house and the very origin of the name had been forgotten. Nor is anything definite known about the political and religious views of the Sadducees except what is recorded by their opponents in the works of Josephus, in the Talmudic literature, and in the New Testament writings.<br /><a name="222">Legendary Origin.</a><br />Josephus relates nothing concerning the origin of what he chooses to call the sect or philosophical school of the Sadducees; he knows only that the three "sects"—the Pharisees, Essenes, and Sadducees—dated back to "very ancient times" (ib. xviii. 1, § 2), which words, written from the point of view of King Herod's days, necessarily point to a time prior to John Hyrcanus (ib. xiii. 8, § 6) orthe Maccabean war (ib. xiii. 5, § 9). Among the Rabbis the following legend circulated: Antigonus of Soko, successor of Simon the Just, the last of the "Men of the Great Synagogue," and consequently living at the time of the influx of Hellenistic ideas, taught the maxim, "Be not like servants who serve their master for the sake of wages [lit. "a morsel"], but be rather like those who serve without thought of receiving wages" (Ab. i. 3); whereupon two of his disciples, Zadok and Boethus, mistaking the high ethical purport of the maxim, arrived at the conclusion that there was no future retribution, saying, "What servant would work all day without obtaining his due reward in the evening?" Instantly they broke away from the Law and lived in great luxury, using many silver and gold vessels at their banquets; and they established schools which declared the enjoyment of this life to be the goal of man, at the same time pitying the Pharisees for their bitter privation in this world with no hope of another world to compensate them. These two schools were called, after their founders, Sadducees and Boethusians (Ab. R. N. v.).<br />The unhistorical character of this legend is shown by the simple fact, learned from Josephus, that the Boethusians represent the family of high priests created by King Herod after his marriage to the daughter of Simon, the son of Boethus ("Ant." xv. 9, § 3; xix. 6, § 2; <a class="cross" href="http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=1232&letter=B">see Boethusians</a>). Obviously neither the character of the Sadducees nor that of the Boethusians was any longer known at the time the story was told in the rabbinical schools. Nor does the attempt to connect the name "Sadducees" with the term "ẓedeḳ" or " ẓedaḳah" (= "righteousness"; Epiphanius, "Panarium," i. 14; Derenbourg, "Histoire de la Palestine," p. 454) deserve any more consideration than the creation by Grätz ("Gesch." 3d ed., iii. 88, 697) and others, for the purpose of accounting for the name, of a heretic leader called Zadok. Geiger's ingenious explanation ("Urschrift," pp. 20 et seq.), as given above, indorsed by Well-hausen ("Die Pharisäer und die Sadducäer," p. 45), is very generally approved to-day (see Schürer, "Gesch." 3d ed., ii. 408); and it has received striking confirmation from the special blessing for "the Sons of Zadok whom God has chosen for the priesthood" in the Hebrew Ben Sira discovered by Schechter (see Schechter and Taylor, "Wisdom of Ben Sira," 1899, p.35). In the New Testament the high priests and their party are identified with the Sadducees (Acts v. 17; comp. ib. xxiii. 6 with ib. xxii. 30, and John vii. 30, xi. 47, xviii. 3 with the Synoptic Gospels; see also "Ant." xx. 9, § 1).<br />The views and principles of the Sadducees may be summarized as follows: (1)<br />Representing the nobility, power, and wealth ("Ant." xviii. 1, § 4), they had centered their interests in political life, of which they were the chief rulers. Instead of sharing the 'Messianic hopes of the Pharisees, who committed the future into the hand of God, they took the people's destiny into their own hands, fighting or negotiating with the heathen nations just as they thought best, while having as their aim their own temporary welfare and worldly success. This is the meaning of what Josephus chooses to term their disbelief in fate and divine providence ("B. J." ii. 8, § 14; "Ant." xiii. 5 § 9).(2)<br />As the logical consequence of the preceding view, they would not accept the Pharisaic doctrine of the resurrection (Sanh. 90b; Mark xii. 12; Ber. ix. 5, "Minim"), which was a national rather than an individual hope. As to the immortality of the soul, they seem to have denied this as well (see Hippolytus, "Refutatio," ix. 29; "Ant." x. 11, § 7).(3)<br />According to Josephus (ib. xiii. 10, § 6), they regarded only those observances as obligatory which are contained in the written word, and did not recognize those not written in the law of Moses and declared by the Pharisees to be derived from the traditions of the fathers. Instead of accepting the authority of the teachers, they considered it a virtue to dispute it by arguments.(4)<br />According to Acts xxiii. 8, they denied also the existence of angels and demons. This probably means that they did not believe in the Essene practise of incantation and conjuration in cases of disease, and were therefore not concerned with the <a class="cross" href="http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=1521&letter=A">Angelology</a> and <a class="cross" href="http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=245&letter=D">Demonology</a> derived from Babylonia and Persia.<br /><a name="223">Their Views and Principles.</a>(5)<br />In regard to criminal jurisdiction they were so rigorous that the day on which their code was abolished by the Pharisaic Sanhedrin under Simeon b. Shetaḥ's leadership, during the reign of Salome Alexandra, was celebrated as a festival (Meg. Ta'an. iv.; comp. Ket. 105a). They insisted on the literal execution of the law of retaliation: "Eye for eye, tooth for tooth" (Ex. xxi. 24; Meg. Ta'an. iv.; B. Ḳ. 84a; comp. Matt. v. 38). On the other hand, they would not inflict the death penalty on false witnesses in a case where capital punishment had been wrongfully carried out, unless the accused had been executed solely in consequence of the testimony of such witnesses (Mak. i. 8; Tosef., Sanh. vi. 6, where "Bocthusians" stands for "Sadducees").(6)<br />They held the owner of a slave fully as responsible for the damage done by the latter as for that done by the owner's ox or ass; whereas the Pharisees discriminated between reasonable and unreasonable beings (Yad. iv. 7).(7)<br />They also insisted, according to Meg. Ta'an. iv., upon a literal interpretation of Deut. xxii. 17 (comp. Sifre, Deut. 237; Ket. 46; see also the description of the custom still obtaining at weddings among the Jews of Salonica, in Braun-Wiesbaden's "Eine Türkische Reise," 1876, p. 235), while most of the Pharisaic teachers took the words figuratively. The same holds true in regard to Deut. xxv. 9: "Then shall his brother's wife . . . spit in his [her deceased husband's brother's] face," which the Pharisees explained as "before him" (Yeb. xii. 6; see Weiss, "Dor," i. 117, note).(8)<br />They followed a traditional practise of their own in granting the daughter the same right of inheritance as the son's daughter in case the son was dead (Meg. Ta'an. v.; Tos. Yad. ii. 20; B. B. viii. 1, 115b).(9)<br />They contended that the seven weeks from the first barley-sheaf-offering ("'omer") to Pentecost should, according to Lev. xxiii. 15-16, be countedfrom "the day after Sabbath," and, consequently, that Pentecost should always be celebrated on the first day of the week (Meg. Ta'an. i.; Men. 65a). In this they obviously followed the old Biblical view which regards the festival of the firstlings as having no connection whatsoever with the Passover feast; whereas the Pharisees, connecting the festival of the Exodus with the festival of the giving of the Law, interpreted the "morrow after the Sabbath" to signify the second day of Passover (<a class="cross" href="http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=582&letter=J">see Jubilees, Book of</a>).<br /><a name="224">Views on Temple Practises.</a>(10)<br />Especially in regard to the Temple practise did they hold older views, based upon claims of greater sanctity for the priesthood and of its sole dominion over the sanctuary. Thus they insisted that the daily burnt offerings were, with reference to the singular used in Num. xxviii. 4, to be offered by the high priest at his own expense; whereas the Pharisees contended that they were to be furnished as a national sacrifice at the cost of the Temple treasury into which the "she-ḳalim" collected from the whole people were paid (Meg. Ta'an. i. 1; Men. 65b; Sheḳ. iii. 1, 3; Grätz, l.c. p. 694).(11)<br />They claimed that the meal offering belonged to the priest's portion; whereas the Pharisees claimed it for the altar (Meg. Ta'an. viii.; Men. vi. 2).(12)<br />They insisted on an especially high degree of purity in those who officiated at the preparation of the ashes of the Red Heifer. The Pharisees, on the contrary, demonstratively opposed such strictness (Parah iii. 7; Tos. Parah iii. 1-8).(13)<br />They declared that the kindling of the incense in the vessel with which the high priest entered the Holy of Holies on the Day of Atonement was to take place outside, so that he might be wrapped in smoke while meeting the Shekinah within, according to Lev. xvi. 2; whereas the Pharisees, denying the high priest the claim of such super-natural vision, insisted that the incense be kindled within (Sifra, Aḥare Mot, 3; Yoma 19b, 53a, b; Yer. Yoma i. 39a, b; comp. Lev. R. xxi. 11).(14)<br />They extended the power of contamination to indirect as well as to direct contact (Yad. iv. 7).(15)<br />They opposed the popular festivity of the water libation and the procession preceding the same on each night of the Sukkot feast, as well as the closing festivity, on which the Pharisees laid much stress, of the beating of the willow-trees (Suk. 43b, 48b; Tos. Suk. iii. 16; comp. "Ant." xiii. 13, § 5).(16)<br />They opposed the Pharisaic assertion that the scrolls of the Holy Scriptures have, like any holy vessel, the power to render unclean (taboo) the hands that touch them (Yad. iv. 6).(17)<br />They opposed the Pharisaic idea of the 'Erub, the merging of several private precincts into one in order to admit of the carrying of food and vessels from one house to another on the Sabbath ('Er. vi. 2).(18)<br />In dating all civil documents they used the phrase "after the high priest of the Most High," and they opposed the formula introduced by the Pharisees in divorce documents," According to the law of Moses and Israel" (Meg. Ta'an. vii.; Yad. iv. 8; see Geiger, l.c. p. 34).<br /><a name="225">Decline of Sadduceeism.</a><br />Whether the Sadducees were less strict in regard to the state of impurity of woman in her periods (Niddah iv. 2), and what object they had in opposing the determination by the Pharisees of the appearance of the new moon (R. H. ii. 1, 22b; Tos. R. H. i. 15), are not clear. Certain it is that in the time of the Tannaim the real issues between them and the Pharisees were forgotten, only scholastic controversies being recorded. In the latter the Sadducees are replaced by the late Boethusians, who had, only for the sake of opposition, maintained certain Sadducean traditions without a proper understanding of the historical principles upon which they were based. In fact, as Josephus ("Ant." xviii. 1, § 3) states in common with the Talmudical sources (Yoma 19b; Niddah 33b), the ruling members of the priesthood of later days were forced by public opinion to yield to the Pharisaic doctors of the Law, who stood so much higher in the people's esteem. In the course of time the Sadducees themselves adopted without contradiction Pharisaic practises; it is stated (Shab. 108a) that they did so in regard to the tefillin, and many other observances appear to have been accepted by them (Hor. 4a; Sanh. 33b).<br />With the destruction of the Temple and the state the Sadducees as a party no longer had an object for which to live. They disappear from history, though their views are partly maintained and echoed by the Samaritans, with whom they are frequently identified (see Hippolytus, "Refutatio Hæresium," ix. 29; Epiphanius, l.c. xiv.; and other Church Fathers, who ascribe to the Sadducees the rejection of the Prophets and the Hagiographa; comp. also Sanh. 90b, where "Ẓadduḳim" stands for "Kutim" [Samaritans]; Sifre, Num. 112; Geiger, l.c. pp. 128-129), and by the Karaites (see Maimonides, commentary on Ab. i. 3; Geiger, "Gesammelte Schriften," iii. 283-321; also <a class="cross" href="http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=1460&letter=A">Anan ben David</a>; <a class="cross" href="http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=108&letter=K">Karaites</a>).<br /><a name="226">In Literature.</a><br />The Book of Ecclesiastes in its original form, that is, before its Epicurean spirit had been toned down by interpolations, was probably written by a Sadducee in antagonism to the Ḥasidim (Eccl. vii. 16, ix. 2; see P. Haupt, "Koheleth," 1905; Grätz, "Koheleth," 1871, p. 30). The Wisdom of Ben Sira, which, like Ecclesiastes and older Biblical writings, has no reference whatsoever to the belief in resurrection or immortality, is, according to Geiger, a product of Sadducean circles ("Z. D. M. G." xii. 536). This view is partly confirmed by the above-cited blessing of "the Sons of Zadok" (Hebrew Ben Sira, li. 129; see also C. Taylor, "Sayings of the Fathers," 1897, p. 115). Also the first Book of Maccabees is, according to Geiger (l.c. pp. 217 et seq.), the work of a Sadducee. Allusion to the Sadducees as "sinners" is found in the Psalms of Solomon (i. 1, iv. 1-10); they are "severe in judgment" (comp. "Ant." xiii. 10, § 6; xx. 9, § 1), "yet themselves full of sin, of lust, and hypocrisy"; "men pleasers," "yet full of evil desires" (ib. viii. 8; see H. E. Ryle and M. R. James, "Psalms of the Pharisees Commonly Called 'Psalms of Solomon,'" 1891, xlvi.-xlviii. and elsewhere; Kautzsch, "Apokryphen," pp. 128 et seq.). Still more distinctly are the Sadducees described in the Book of Enoch (xciv. 5-9, xcvii.-xcviii., xcix. 2, civ. 10) as: "the men of unrighteousness who trust in their riches"; "sinners who transgress and pervert the eternal law." Sadducees, if not in name, at least in their Epicurean views as opposed to the saints, are depicted also in the Book of Wisdom (i. 16-ii. 22), where the Hellenistic nobility, which occupied high positions likewise in Alexandria, is addressed.<br />In the New Testament the Sadducees are mentioned in Matt. iii. 7 and xvi. 1, 6, 11, where they are identical with the <a class="cross" href="http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=637&letter=H">Herodians</a> (Mark xii. 13), that is, the Boethusians (Matt. xxii. 23, 34; Mark xii. 18; Acts iv. 1, v. 17, xxiii. 6-8). In John's Gospel they simply figure as "the chief priests" (vii. 23, 45; xi. 47, 57; xviii. 3).<br />In rabbinical literature careful discrimination must be made between the tannaitic period and that of the Amoraim. The Mishnah and Baraita in the passages quoted above indicate at least a fair knowledge of the character and doctrines of the Sadducees (see, for instance, R. Akiba in Yoma 40b), even though the names "Boethusians" and "Sadducees" occur promiscuously (see Grätz, "Gesch." iii. 693, and <a class="cross" href="http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=1232&letter=B">Boethusians</a>). In the amoraic period the name "Ẓadduḳi" signifies simply "heretic," exactly like the term "min" = "gnostic"; in fact, copyists sometimes replaced, it may be intentionally, the word "min" by "Ẓadduḳi," especially when Christian gnostics were referred to. However, in many cases in which "Ẓadduḳim" stands for "minim" in the later Talmud editions the change was due to censorship laws, as is shown by the fact that the manuscripts and older editions actually have the word "minim." Thus the Ẓadduḳi who troubled R. Joshua b. Levi with Biblical arguments (Ber. 7a; Sanh. 105b), the one who argued with R. Abbahu and Beruriah, (Ber. 10a), the one who bothered R. Ishmael with his dreams (ib. 56b), and the one who argued with R. Ḥanina concerning the Holy Land in the Messianic time (Giṭ. 57a; Ket. 112a) and regarding Jesus ("Balaam," Sanh. 106b), were Christian gnostics; so were also the two Ẓadduḳim in the company of R. Abbahu (Suk. 48b). But the Ẓadduḳim who argue in favor of dualism (Sanh. 37a [the original version of the Mishnah had "apikoresin" or "minim"], 38b-39a; Ḥul. 87 a) are gnostics or Jewish heretics, as are also those spoken of as "a vile people" (Yeb. 63b). "Birkat ha-minim," the benediction against Christian informers and gnostics, is called also "Birkat ha-Ẓadduḳim" (Ber. 28b, 29a). "The writings of the Ẓadduḳim" (Shab. 116a) are gnostic writings, the same as "Sefarim Ḥiẓonim" (Sanh. x. 1; "Sifre ha-Minim," Tos. Shab. xiii. 5). So it is said of Adam that he was a Ẓadduḳi, that is, a gnostic who did not believe in God as the Giver of the Law (Sanh. 38b). "The Ẓadduḳim and informers" (Derek Ereẓ Rabbah ii.; Derek Ereẓ Zuṭa i.) are Christian gnostics. In Hor. 11a a Ẓadduḳi is declared to be a transgressor of the dietary and other Mosaic laws, nay, an idolater. On the other hand, the Ẓadduḳim who conversed with Rab Sheshet (Ber. 58a), with Raba (Shab. 88a), and with R. Judah (Ned. 49b) seem to have been Manicheans. <a class="cross" href="http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=252&letter=P"></a>Duke Eversmeyerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12979421184987312497noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7936381627778855349.post-68038941050527674382007-12-02T06:25:00.000-08:002007-12-02T06:26:01.573-08:00A Nice StoryOnce upon a time, there was this girl who had four boyfriends.<br /><br />She loved the 4th boyfriend the most and adorned him with rich<br />robes and<br />treated him to the finest of delicacies. She gave him nothing<br />but the<br />best.<br /><br />She also loved the 3rd boyfriend very much and was always<br />showing him<br />off to neighboring kingdoms.<br />However, she feared that one day he would leave her for another.<br /><br />She also loved her 2nd boyfriend. He was her confidant and was<br />always<br />kind, considerate and patient with her.<br />Whenever this girl faced a problem, she could confide in him,<br />and he<br />would help her get through the difficult times.<br /><br />The girls 1st boyfriend was a very loyal partner and had made<br />great<br />contributions in maintaining her wealth and kingdom. However,<br />she did<br />not love the first boyfriend. Although he loved her deeply, she<br />hardly<br />took notice of him.<br /><br />One day, the girl fell ill and she knew her time was short. She<br />thought<br />of her luxurious life and wondered, I now have four boyfriends<br />with me,<br />but when I die, I'll be all alone.'<br /><br />Thus, she asked the 4th boyfriend, I loved you the most, endowed<br />you<br />with the finest clothing and showered great care over you. Now<br />that I'm<br />dying, will you follow me and keep me company?'<br /><br />'No way!', replied the 4th boyfriend, and he walked away without<br />another<br />word.<br /><br />His answer cut like a sharp knife right into her heart.<br /><br />The sad girl then asked the 3rd boyfriend, 'I loved you all my<br />life. Now<br />that I'm dying, will you follow me and keep me company?'<br /><br />'No!', replied the 3rd boyfriend. 'Life is too good!<br />When you die, I'm going to marry someone else!'<br /><br />Her heart sank and turned cold.<br /><br />She then asked the 2nd boyfriend, 'I have always turned to you<br />for help<br />and you've always been there for me.<br /><br />When I die, will you follow me and keep me company?'<br /><br />'I'm sorry, I can't help you out this time!', replied the 2nd<br />boyfriend. 'At the very most, I can only walk with you to your<br />grave.'<br /><br />His answer struck her like a bolt of lightning, and the girl was<br />devastated.<br /><br />Then a voice called out: 'I'll go with you. I'll follow you no<br />matter<br />where you go.'<br /><br />The girl looked up, and there was her first boyfriend.<br />He was very skinny as he suffered from malnutrition and neglect.<br /><br /><br />Greatly grieved, the girl said, 'I should have taken much better<br />care of<br />you when I had the chance!'<br /><br />In truth, you have 4 boyfriends in your lives:<br /><br />Your 4th boyfriend is your body. No matter how much time and<br />effort you<br />lavish in making it look good, it will leave you when you d ie.<br /><br />Your 3rd boyfriend is your possessions, status and wealth. When<br />you die,<br />it will all go to others.<br /><br />Your 2nd boyfriend is your family and friends. No matter how<br />much they<br />have been there for you, the furthest they can stay by you is up<br />to the<br />grave.<br /><br />And your 1st boyfriend is your Soul. Often neglected in pursuit<br />of<br />wealth, power and pleasures of the world.<br /><br />However, your Soul is the only thing that will follow you where<br />ever you<br />go. Cultivate, strengthen and cherish it now, for it is the only<br />part of<br />you that will follow you to the throne of God and continue with<br />you<br />throughout Eternity.<br /><br />Thought for the day: Remember, when the world pushes you to your<br />knees,<br />you're in the perfect position to pray.<br /><br />Pass this on to someone you care about - I just did.<br /><br /><br />Being happy doesn't mean everything's perfect. It means you've<br />decided to see beyond the imperfections . <br /><br />I hope this touched you!Duke Eversmeyerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12979421184987312497noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7936381627778855349.post-30373329779729229892007-11-30T18:08:00.000-08:002007-11-30T18:09:56.374-08:00Lesson 12 Mary MagdalenShe is called "the Penitent". St. Mary was given the name 'Magdalen' because, though a Jewish girl, she lived in a Gentile town called Magdale, in northern Galilee, and her culture and manners were those of a Gentile. St. Luke records that she was a notorious sinner, and had seven devils removed from her. She was present at Our Lords' Crucifixion, and with Joanna and Mary, the mother of James and Salome, at Jesus' empty tomb. Fourteen years after Our Lord's death, St. Mary was put in a boat by the Jews without sails or oars - along with Sts. Lazarus and Martha, St. Maximin (who baptized her), St. Sidonius ("the man born blind"), her maid Sera, and the body of St. Anne, the mother of the Blessed Virgin. They were sent drifting out to sea and landed on the shores of Southern France, where St. Mary spent the rest of her life as a contemplative in a cave known as Sainte-Baume. She was given the Holy Eucharist daily by angels as her only food, and died when she was 72. St. Mary was transported miraculously, just before she died, to the chapel of St. Maximin, where she received the last sacraments. <br />More about this saint: St. Mary Magdalen (Feast day - July 22) Mary Magdalen was well known as a sinner when she first saw Our Lord. She was very beautiful and very proud, but after she met Jesus, she felt great sorrow for her evil life. When Jesus went to supper at the home of a rich man named Simon, Mary came to weep at His feet. Then with her long beautiful hair, she wiped His feet dry and anointed them with expensive perfume. Some people were surprised that Jesus let such a sinner touch Him, but Our Lord could see into Mary's heart, and He said: "Many sins are forgiven her, because she has loved very much." Then to Mary He said kindly, "Your faith has made you safe; go in peace." From then on, with the other holy women, Mary humbly served Jesus and His Apostles. When Our Lord was crucified, she was there at the foot of His cross, unafraid for herself, and thinking only of His sufferings. No wonder Jesus said of her: "She has loved much." After Jesus' body had been placed in the tomb, Mary went to anoint it with spices early Easter Sunday morning. Not finding the Sacred Body, she began to weep, and seeing someone whom she thought was the gardener, she asked him if he knew where the Body of her beloved Master had been taken. But then the person spoke in a voice she knew so well: "Mary!" It was Jesus, risen from the dead! He had chosen to show Himself first to Mary Magdalen, the repentent sinner. <br />The Jesus Conspiracy <br /><br />The Da Vinci Code begins with the murder of a French museum curator named Jacques Sauniere. A scholarly Harvard professor and a beautiful French cryptologist are commissioned to decipher a message left by the curator before his death. The message turns out to reveal the most profound conspiracy in the history of humankind: a cover-up of the true message of Jesus Christ by a secret arm of the Roman Catholic Church called Opus Dei. <br /><br />Before his death, the curator had evidence that could disprove the deity of Christ. Although (according to the plot) the church tried for centuries to suppress the evidence, great thinkers and artists have planted clues everywhere: in paintings such as the Mona Lisa and Last Supper by da Vinci, in the architecture of cathedrals, even in Disney cartoons. The book’s main claims are these: <br />· The Roman emperor Constantine conspired to deify Jesus Christ. <br />· Constantine personally selected the books of the New Testament. <br />· The Gnostic gospels were banned by men to suppress women. <br />· Jesus and Mary Magdalene were secretly married and had a child. <br />· Thousands of secret documents disprove key points of Christianity. <br />Brown reveals his conspiracy through the book’s fictional expert, British royal historian Sir Leigh Teabing. Presented as a wise old scholar, Teabing reveals to cryptologist Sophie Neveu that at the Council of Nicaea in a.d. 325 “many aspects of Christianity were debated and voted upon,” including the divinity of Jesus. <br />“Until that moment in history,” he says, “Jesus was viewed by His followers as a mortal prophet … a great and powerful man, but a man nonetheless.” <br /><br />Neveu is shocked. “Not the Son of God?” she asks. <br /><br />Teabing explains: “Jesus’ establishment as ‘the Son of God’ was officially proposed and voted on by the Council of Nicaea.” <br /><br />“Hold on. You’re saying Jesus’ divinity was the result of a vote?” <br /><br />“A relatively close vote at that,” Teabing tells the stunned cryptologist.2<br />So, according to Teabing, Jesus was not regarded as God until the Council of Nicaea in a.d. 325, when the real records of Jesus were allegedly banned and destroyed. Thus, according to the theory, the entire foundation of Christianity rests upon a lie.<br /><br />The Da Vinci Code has sold its story well, drawing comments from readers such as “If it were not true it could not have been published!” Another said he would “never set foot in a church again.” A reviewer of the book praised it for its “impeccable research.”3 Pretty convincing for a fictional work.<br />Let’s accept for the moment that Teabing’s proposal might be true. Why, in that case, would the Council of Nicaea decide to promote Jesus to Godhood? <br /><br />“It was all about power,” Teabing continues. “Christ as Messiah was critical to the functioning of Church and state. Many scholars claim that the early Church literally stole Jesus from His original followers, hijacking His human message, shrouding it in an impenetrable cloak of divinity, and using it to expand their own power.”4<br /><br />In many ways, The Da Vinci Code is the ultimate conspiracy theory. If Brown’s assertions are correct, then we have been lied to—by the church, by history, and by the Bible. Perhaps even by those we trust most: our parents or teachers. And it was all for the sake of a power grab.<br /><br />Although The Da Vinci Code is fictional, it does base much of its premise upon actual events (the Council of Nicaea), actual people (Constantine and Arius), and actual documents (the Gnostic gospels). If we are to get to the bottom of the conspiracy, our project must be to address Brown’s accusations and separate fact from fiction. <br /><br />Constantine and Christianity <br /><br />In the centuries prior to Constantine’s reign over the Roman Empire, Christians had been severely persecuted. But then, while entrenched in warfare, Constantine reported to have seen a bright image of a cross in the sky inscribed with the words “Conquer by this.” He marched into battle under the sign of the cross and took control of the empire.<br /><br />Constantine’s apparent conversion to Christianity was a watershed in church history. Rome became a Christian empire. For the first time in nearly 300 years it was relatively safe, and even cool, to be a Christian.<br /><br />No longer were Christians persecuted for their faith. Constantine then sought to unify his Eastern and Western Empires, which had been badly divided by schisms, sects, and cults, centering mostly around the issue of Jesus Christ’s identity.<br /><br />These are some of the kernels of truth in The Da Vinci Code, and kernels of truth are a prerequisite for any successful conspiracy theory. But the book’s plot turns Constantine into a conspirator. So let’s address a key question raised by Brown’s theory: did Constantine invent the Christian doctrine of Jesus’ divinity? <br />Deifying Jesus<br />To answer Brown’s accusation, we must first determine what Christians in general believed before Constantine ever convened the council at Nicaea.<br />Christians had been worshiping Jesus as God since the first century. But in the fourth century, a church leader from the east, Arius, launched a campaign to defend God’s oneness. He taught that Jesus was a specially created being, higher than the angels, but not God. Athanasius and most church leaders, on the other hand, were convinced that Jesus was God in the flesh.<br />Constantine wanted to settle the dispute, hoping to bring peace to his empire, uniting the east and west divisions. Thus, in 325 A.D., he convened more than 300 bishops at Nicaea (now part of Turkey) from throughout the Christian world. The crucial question is, did the early church think Jesus was the Creator or merely a creation—Son of God or son of a carpenter? So, what did the apostles teach about Jesus? From their very first recorded statements, they regarded him as God. About 30 years after Jesus’ death and resurrection, Paul wrote the Philippians that Jesus was God in human form (Philippians 2:6-7, NLT). And John, a close eye-witness, confirms Jesus’ divinity in the following passage:<br />In the beginning the Word already existed. He was with God, and he was God. He created everything there is. Nothing exists that he didn't make. Life itself was in him..So the Word became human and lived here on earth among us (John 1: 1-4, 14, NLT). <br />This passage from John 1, has been discovered in an ancient manuscript, and it is carbon-dated at 175-225 A.D. Thus Jesus was clearly spoken of as God over a hundred years before Constantine convened the Council of Nicaea. We now see that forensic manuscript evidence contradicts The Da Vinci Code's claim that Jesus' divinity was a fourth century invention. But what does history tell us about the Council of Nicaea? Brown asserts in his book, through Teabing, that the majority of bishops at Nicaea overruled Arius's belief that Jesus was a "mortal prophet" and adopted the doctrine of Jesus' divinity by a "relatively close vote." True or false?<br />In reality, the vote was a landslide: only two of the 318 bishops dissented. Whereas Arius believed that the Father alone was God, and that Jesus was His supreme creation, the council concluded that Jesus and the Father were of the same divine essence.<br />The Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit were deemed to be distinct, coexistent, coeternal Persons, but one God. This doctrine of one God in three Persons became known as the Nicene Creed, and is the central core of the Christian Faith. Now, it is true that Arius was persuasive and had considerable influence. The landslide vote came after considerable debate. But in the end the council overwhelmingly declared Arius to be a heretic, since his teaching contradicted what the apostles had taught about Jesus' divinity.<br />History also confirms that Jesus had publicly condoned the worship he received from his disciples. And, as we have seen, Paul and other apostles clearly taught that Jesus is God and is worthy of worship.<br />From the first days of the Christian church, Jesus was regarded as far more than a mere man, and most of his followers worshiped him as Lord-the Creator of the universe. So, how could Constantine have invented the doctrine of Jesus' divinity if the church had regarded Jesus as God for more than 200 years? The Da Vinci Code doesn't address this question.<br />Firing on the Canon <br /><br />The Da Vinci Code also states that Constantine suppressed all documents about Jesus other than those found in our current New Testament canon (recognized by the church as authentic eyewitness reports of the apostles). It further asserts that the New Testament accounts were altered by Constantine and the bishops to reinvent Jesus. Another key element of The Da Vinci Code conspiracy is that the four New Testament Gospels were cherry-picked from a total of "more than 80 gospels," most of which were supposedly suppressed by Constantine.5 <br /><br />There are two central issues here, and we need to address both. The first is whether Constantine altered or biased the selection of the New Testament books. The second is whether he barred documents that should have been included in the Bible. <br /><br />Regarding the first issue, letters and documents written by second century church leaders and heretics alike confirm the wide usage of the New Testament books. Nearly 200 years before Constantine convened the Council of Nicaea, the heretic Marcion listed 11 of the 27 New Testament books as being the authentic writings of the apostles. <br /><br />And about the same time, another heretic, Valentinus, alludes to a wide variety of New Testament themes and passages. Since these two heretics were opponents of the early church leadership, they were not writing just what the bishops wanted. Yet, like the early church, they still referred to the same New Testament books we read today. <br /><br />So, if the New Testament was already widely in use 200 years before Constantine and the Council of Nicaea, how could the emperor have invented or altered it? By that time the church was widespread and encompassed hundreds of thousands if not millions of believers, all of whom were familiar with the New Testament accounts. <br /><br />In his book The Da Vinci Deception, an analysis of The Da Vinci Code, Dr. Erwin Lutzer remarks, <br />Constantine did not decide which books would be in the canon; indeed, the topic of the canon did not even come up at the Council of Nicaea. By that time the early church was reading a canon of books it had determined was the Word of God two hundred years earlier.6<br />Although the official canon was still years from being finalized, the New Testament of today was deemed authentic more than two centuries before Nicaea. <br />This brings us to our second issue; why were these mysterious Gnostic gospels destroyed and excluded from the New Testament? In the book, Teabing asserts that the Gnostic writings were eliminated from 50 authorized Bibles commissioned by Constantine at the council. He excitedly tells Neveu: <br />Because Constantine upgraded Jesus’ status almost four centuries after Jesus’ death, thousands of documents already existed chronicling His life as a mortal man. To rewrite the history books, Constantine knew he would need a bold stroke. From this sprang the most profound moment in Christian history. … Constantine commissioned and financed a new Bible, which omitted those gospels that spoke of Christ’s human traits and embellished those gospels that made Him godlike. The earlier gospels were outlawed, gathered up, and burned.7 <br />Are these Gnostic writings the real history of Jesus Christ? Let's take a deeper look to see if we can separate truth from fiction.<br /><br /><br />Secret "Knowers" <br /><br />The Gnostic gospels are attributed to a group known as (big surprise here) the Gnostics. Their name comes from the Greek word gnosis, meaning “knowledge.” These people thought they had secret, special knowledge hidden from ordinary people. <br /><br />Of the 52 writings, only five are actually listed as gospels. As we shall see, these so-called gospels are markedly different from the New Testament Gospels, Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John.<br /><br />As Christianity spread, the Gnostics mixed some doctrines and elements of Christianity into their beliefs, morphing Gnosticism into a counterfeit Christianity. Perhaps they did it to keep recruitment numbers up and make Jesus a poster child for their cause. However, for their system of thought to fit with Christianity, Jesus needed to be reinvented, stripped of both his humanity and his absolute deity.<br /><br />In The Oxford History of Christianity John McManners wrote of the Gnostics’ mixture of Christian and mythical beliefs. Early Crictics <br />Contrary to Brown’s assertions, it was not Constantine who branded the Gnostic beliefs as heretical; it was the apostles themselves. A mild strain of the philosophy was already growing in the first century just decades after the death of Jesus. The apostles, in their teaching and writings, went to great lengths to condemn these beliefs as being opposed to the truth of Jesus, to whom they were eyewitnesses. <br />Check out, for example, what the apostle John wrote near the end of the first century: <br />Who is the great liar? The one who says that Jesus is not the Christ. Such people are antichrists, for they have denied the Father and the Son (1 John 2:22). <br />Following the apostles’ teaching, the early church leaders unanimously condemned the Gnostics as a cult. Church father Irenaeus, writing 140 years before the Council of Nicaea, confirmed that the Gnostics were condemned by the church as heretics. He also rejected their “gospels.” However, referring to the four New Testament Gospels, he said, “It is not possible that the Gospels can be either more or fewer in number than they are.” 9 <br />Christian theologian Origen wrote this in the early third century, more than a hundred years before Nicaea: I know a certain gospel which is called “The Gospel according to Thomas” and a “Gospel according to Matthias,” and many others have we read—lest we should in any way be considered ignorant because of those who imagine they possess some knowledge if they are acquainted with these. Nevertheless, among all these we have approved solely what the church has recognized, which is that only four gospels should be accepted.10 <br />There we have it in the words of a highly regarded early church leader. The Gnostics were recognized as a non-Christian cult well before the Council of Nicaea. But there's more evidence calling into question claims made in The Da Vinci Code. <br />Who's Sexist? <br />Brown suggests that one of the motives for Constantine’s alleged banning of the Gnostic writings was a desire to suppress women in the church. Ironically, it is the Gnostic Gospel of Thomas that demeans women. It concludes (supposedly quoting Peter) with this eye-popping statement: “Let Mary go away from us, because women are not worthy of life.” Then Jesus allegedly tells Peter that he will make Mary into a male so that she may enter the kingdom of heaven. Read: women are inferior. With sentiments like that on display, it’s difficult to conceive of the Gnostic writings as being a battle cry for women’s liberation. <br />In stark contrast, the Jesus of the biblical Gospels always treated women with dignity and respect. Revolutionary verses like this one found within the New Testament have been foundational to attempts at raising women's status: "There is no longer Jew or Gentile, slave or free, male or female. For you are all Christians-you are one in Christ Jesus" (Galatians 3:28, NLT). <br />Mystery Authors <br /><br />When it comes to the Gnostic gospels, just about every book carries the name of a New Testament character: the Gospel of Philip, the Gospel of Peter, the Gospel of Mary, The Gospel of Judas, and so on. (Sounds a little like roll call at a parochial school.) These are the books that conspiracy theories like The Da Vinci Code are based upon. But were they even written by their purported authors?<br /><br />The Gnostic gospels are dated about 110 to 300 years after Christ, and no credible scholar believes any of them could have been written by their namesakes. In James M. Robinson’s comprehensive The Nag Hammadi Library, we learn that the Gnostic gospels were written by “largely unrelated and anonymous authors.”12 Dr. Darrell L. Bock, professor of New Testament studies at Dallas Theological Seminary, wrote, “The bulk of this material is a few generations removed from the foundations of the Christian faith, a vital point to remember when assessing the contents.”13<br /><br />New Testament scholar Norman Geisler commented on two Gnostic writings, the Gospel of Peter and the Acts of John. (These Gnostic writings are not to be confused with the New Testament books written by John and Peter.) “The Gnostic writings were not written by the apostles, but by men in the second century (and later) pretending to use apostolic authority to advance their own teachings. Today we call this fraud and forgery.”14 <br /><br />The Gnostic gospels are not historical accounts of Jesus’ life but instead are largely esoteric sayings, shrouded in mystery, leaving out historical details such as names, places, and events. This is in striking contrast to the New Testament Gospels, which contain innumerable historical facts about Jesus’ life, ministry, and words. Mrs. Jesus <br /><br />The juiciest part of the Da Vinci conspiracy is the assertion that Jesus and Mary Magdalene had a secret marriage that produced a child, perpetuating his bloodline. Furthermore, Mary Magdalene's womb, carrying Jesus' offspring, is presented in the book as the legendary Holy Grail, a secret closely held by a Catholic organization called the Priory of Sion. Sir Isaac Newton, Botticelli, Victor Hugo, and Leonardo Da Vinci were all cited as members. <br />Romance. Scandal. Intrigue. Great stuff for a conspiracy theory. But is it true? Let's look at what scholars say. <br /><br />A Newsweek magazine article, that summarized leading scholars' opinions, concluded that the theory that Jesus and Mary Magdalene were secretly married has no historical basis.15 The proposal set forth in The Da Vinci Code is built primarily upon one solitary verse in the Gospel of Philip that indicates Jesus and Mary were companions. In the book, Teabing tries to build a case that the word for companion (koinonos) could mean spouse. But Teabing's theory is not accepted by scholars. <br /><br />There is also a single verse in the Gospel of Philip that says Jesus kissed Mary. Greeting friends with a kiss was common in the first century, and had no sexual connotation. But even if The Da Vinci Code interpretation is correct, there is no other historical document to confirm its theory. And since the Gospel of Philip is a forged document written 150-220 years after Christ by an unknown author, its statement about Jesus isn't historically reliable. <br /><br />Perhaps the Gnostics felt the New Testament was a bit shy on romance and decided to sauce it up a little. Whatever the reason, this isolated and obscure verse written two centuries after Christ isn't much to base a conspiracy theory upon. Interesting reading perhaps, but definitely not history. <br /><br />As to the Holy Grail and the Priory of Sion, Brown's fictional account again distorts history. The legendary Holy Grail was supposedly Jesus' cup at his last supper, and had nothing to do with Mary Magdalene. And Leonardo da Vinci never could have known about the Priory of Sion, since it wasn't founded until 1956, 437 years after his death. Again, interesting fiction, but phony history.<br /><br />The "Secret" Documents <br /><br />But what about Teabing's disclosure that "thousands of secret documents" prove that Christianity is a hoax? Could this be true? <br /><br />If there were such documents, scholars opposed to Christianity would have a field day with them. Fraudulent writings that were rejected by the early church for heretical views are not secret, having been known about for centuries. No surprise there. They have never been considered part of the authentic writings of the apostles. <br /><br />And if Brown (Teabing) is referring to the apocryphal, or infancy Gospels, that cat is also out of the bag. They are not secret, nor do they disprove Christianity. New Testament scholar Raymond Brown has said of the Gnostic gospels, "We learn not a single verifiable new fact about the historical Jesus' ministry, and only a few new sayings that might possibly have been his."18 <br /><br />Unlike the Gnostic gospels, whose authors are unknown and who were not eyewitnesses, the New Testament we have today has passed numerous tests for authenticity. (Click to read Jesus.doc) The contrast is devastating to those pushing conspiracy theories. New Testament historian F. F. Bruce wrote, "There is no body of ancient literature in the world which enjoys such a wealth of good textual attestation as the New Testament."19<br />New Testament scholar Bruce Metzger revealed why the Gospel of Thomas was not accepted by the early church: "It is not right to say that the Gospel of Thomas was excluded by some fiat on the part of a council: the right way to put it is, the Gospel of Thomas excluded itself! It did not harmonize with other testimony about Jesus that early Christians accepted as trustworthy."17<br />History's Verdict <br />So, what are we to conclude regarding the various conspiracy theories about Jesus Christ? Karen King, professor of ecclesiastical history at Harvard, has written several books on the Gnostic gospels, including The Gospel of Mary of Magdala and What Is Gnosticism? King, though a strong advocate of Gnostic teaching, concluded, "These notions about the conspiracy theory...are all marginal ideas that have no historical basis."20 <br />In spite of the lack of historical evidence, conspiracy theories will still sell millions of books and set box office records. Scholars in related fields, some Christians and some with no faith at all, have disputed the claims of The Da Vinci Code. However, the easily swayed will still wonder; Could there be something to it after all? <br />Award-winning television journalist Frank Sesno asked a panel of historical scholars about the fascination people have with conspiracy theories. Professor Stanley Kutler from the University of Wisconsin replied, "We all love mysteries-but we love conspiracies more."21 <br />So, if you want to read a great conspiracy theory about Jesus, Dan Brown's novel, The Da Vinci Code, may be just the ticket for you. But if you want to read the true accounts of Jesus Christ, then Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John will get you back to what the eyewitnesses saw, heard, and wrote. Who would you rather believe?<br />So What? <br />Some may ask the question: So what if The DaVinci Code is wrong, and the New Testament portrays the real Jesus Christ? What does that have to do with you and me today? Can Jesus really give our lives meaning and purpose?Duke Eversmeyerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12979421184987312497noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7936381627778855349.post-8826333977840350552007-11-28T10:54:00.000-08:002007-11-28T10:57:24.136-08:00From tha Annals of Internal MedicineThis is an article which appeared in the latest issue of the Annals of Internal Medicine which I thouhgt you'd like to read.<br /><br />ON BEING A DOCTOR <br />How Far Along Are You?<br /> <br />I<br /> took a deep breath befote entering Mrs. Bell's room. I had not yet met this patient, and her nurse told me there were many concerned family members and church friends gathered at the bedside. I knew that Mrs. Bell's adult children were having difficulty coming to terms with the course of their mother's uterine cancer. She was dying, and her family and friends had come to pray and say goodbye. My role as a palliative care fellow was to try to make sure she was comfortable, and to help her loved ones through this time, to the extent they would allow.<br />I entered the room. All conversation stopped. I felt the eyes of perhaps 20 people on me. I grew increasingly uneasy. I was acutely aware of being the only white person in the room, and I felt all the more conspicuous with my pregnant belly.<br />"Hello, I'm Dr. Thomas," I said, "I'm from the pain and palliative care team. I'm here to make Mrs. Bell as comfortable as possible, and to answer any questions you might have." Continued silence. I shook hands with Mrs. Bell's 3 children. I went to the bedside, leaned over, and took Mrs. Bell's hand in mine. I smiled at her. "Hello. I heard you were having some pain in your belly. Is it still there?" She kept her eyes closed but held onto my hand and shook her head no. She seemed far away but looked peaceful and comfortable. "Do you know that you have lots of visitors here today? Your children are here, and some of your grandchildren, and your friends from church." She smiled briefly and nodded, keeping her eyes closed. "Is there anything I can do for you at this time, anything to help you be more comfortable?" She shook her head barely perceptibly one last time, and slipped back to sleep. I turned and faced the crowd, "Do you have any questions?"<br />Someone asked, "What is she getting to help her pain?" I answered, "She has a patch on her skin that gives her a small amount of pain medicine called fentanyl all the time, and we will give her some morphine by vein if she has any more discomfort." A murmur greeted this. "Why is she sleeping so much?" the son asked. "Her body is slowing down. Her kidneys aren't working well and the toxins they usually remove are building up in her blood and making her sleepy. The pain medicines may be making her a little sleepy as well." Again, a murmur arose, and heads nodded as if I had confirmed a hypothesis posed before I got there. Finally, the older daughter gathered the courage to ask the question they were all wondering.<br />"How much longer does she have?"<br />I paused. "It's hard to say. Doctors can be really bad at predicting this. I think she will probably pass away in the next few days, but I want to prepare you: I wouldn't be surprised to receive a phone call at any time letting me know she died." There was silence and then again the low murmuring as the crowd processed this. Some looked in<br /> <br />my eyes and nodded slowly, again as if I were confirming what they were already thinking. I asked, "Are there any more questions? Is there anything more I can do for you or for her?" Most continued talking or shook their heads. I turned for the door.<br />A middle-aged woman in a purple dress approached me. "How far along are you?" she asked.<br />I paused. "Seven months," I said.<br />She put her hand on my belly. "Do you know if you're having a boy or a girl?"<br />"A little boy," I said, unable to keep the delight out of my voice, but unsure it was appropriate under these circumstances. More women joined the conversation.<br />"Is this your first baby?" asked a younger woman.<br />"Yes."<br />"Do you have everything ready at home?"<br />I smiled and rolled my eyes, "Not even close!" Two more women put their hands on my belly, and they began to pray.<br />"Lord, please give this nice lady doctor a beautiful baby boy," the woman in the purple dress said in a low, clear voice. "Amen!" arose from the women around me. "Jesus, we ask in your name that her labor be short and the delivery easy!" Again came the chorus of "Amen!" The praying grew in volume and intensity, and calls of "Amen!" erupted at irregular intervals from around the room as more and more people joined in. "Lord, we thank you for the gift of life, for the child you are bringing into the world!" "Amen!"<br />"Make him strong and healthy, and let him grow up to glorify your name!"<br />"Amen!" "Amen!" "AMEN!"<br />I stood quietly in the middle of the circle, with 4 or 5 friendly hands on my belly. Nothing in my career to that point had prepared me for this moment, but I found myself relaxing and enjoying the feeling of connection and support. I felt a deep appreciation that this group saw nothing inconsistent about praying for me and my unborn son in the midst of praying for their dying mother, grandmother, and friend. When the praying quieted down, I shook hands and kissed cheeks all around, gratefully accepting good wishes for the baby. There was an unmistakable feeling that people who had met as strangers were now parting as friends. I left, and smiled as I heard the chatter and laughter follow me down the hall.<br />Jane deLima Thomas, MDDuke Eversmeyerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12979421184987312497noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7936381627778855349.post-52849328884122192812007-11-14T18:36:00.000-08:002007-11-14T18:39:53.966-08:00Lesson 11 Jesus and the Samaritan WomanStrategic Movements<br />The Lord’s travels were not haphazard. They were meticulously orchestrated so as to enhance the greatest advantage for the success of his coming kingdom. Frequently, “timing” was crucial, for everything must proceed on schedule toward that most important “hour” on the divine clock (cf. Jn. 7:30; 8:20; 13:1, etc.).<br />Timing was a factor in the case of the present context. His ministry had been enormously successful, as reflected in the number of conversions being effected by his disciples—eclipsing even the work of John the Baptizer. Because of this success, the Pharisees were beginning to focus a more hostile interest in him. So he decided to redirect his labor from Judea in the south, to Galilee in the north. In so doing, the apostle notes, “he must needs pass through Samaria.” Several observations are in order.<br /><br />1. Note that John 4:1 begins with the words, “When therefore the Lord knew ….” <br />Here we learn something about the incarnate Lord. Though he was deity in nature, he did not continuously exercise the quality of omniscience. He could, consistent with his Father’s will, exercise supernatural knowledge (cf. Mt. 12:25); at other times, he accessed knowledge the ordinary way (cf. Jn. 11:34).<br />2. The success of Jesus aroused the enmity of the Jewish leaders. This jealousy would eventually reach such an apex that they would deliver their own Messiah to the Roman authorities for crucifixion. Even Pilate recognized that on account of “envy” the Jews had delivered up Jesus (Mt. 27:18). <br />3. Men with shriveled souls have but two ways of exalting themselves; they either boast of their accomplishments, or tear down those they perceive as rivals. Usually, they do both. <br />4. While it may seem natural to take the expression “must needs” as a geographical reference, since Samaria lies between Judea and Galilee, passing “through Samaria” was not the only route between the two provinces—in fact, it was not the most common one. <br />Because of Jewish hostilities toward the Samaritan people (which we will discuss later), the Hebrews frequently would travel to the east when they had leisure time (see Josephus, Ant., 20.6.1, regarding travel at feast times), cross over the Jordan, and thus skirt the Samaritan territory. Samaria was considered as not belonging to the Holy Land, a strip of “foreign country” separating Judea from Galilee (Edersheim, 1957, 12). Such a detour would take longer than the normal three days of travel. <br />The Lord, however, did not hesitate to traverse Samaritan territory (Lk. 9:51-56; 17:11-19; Jn. 4:1ff). Some scholars, therefore, view this "must needs" language as referring to a:<br /><br />“compulsion other than mere convenience. As the Savior of all men, Jesus had to confront the smoldering suspicion and enmity between Jew and Samaritan by ministering to his enemies” (Tenney, 54). <br />Christ’s mission to earth was regulated on more than one occasion by a heavenly “must” (cf. Lk. 2:49; 4:43; 19:5; 24:7; Jn. 9:4; 10:16; 20:9).<br />At Jacob’s Well<br />As Jesus and his disciples traveled northward through Samaria, they came to a city called Sychar. The precise location of Sychar is a point of controversy. It was near Mt. Gerizim, a peak some 2,850 feet high, about 40 miles north of Jerusalem. Some identify the city with modern Askar, slightly more than half a mile north of Jacob’s well, while others locate the city at the ruins of ancient Shechem (now Tell Balatah), which is located at the eastern edge of the pass between Mt. Ebal and Mt. Gerizim. John says it was “near to the parcel of ground that Jacob gave to his son Joseph” (4:5; cf. Gen. 48:22).<br />The apostle declares that “Jacob’s well was there” (4:6). The site of Jacob’s well has been called “the most authentic of all the Holy Places in Palestine” (A. Parrot, cited in Freedman, III.608). The well is about 300 yards SSE of Tell Balatah. When it was cleaned out it 1935, it was shown to be about 135 feet deep (cf. 4:11), with the water being some 75 to 80 feet from the surface in the summer (Wright, 216). It is seven and one-half feet in diameter.<br />John calls it both a “spring” [pege] (Jn. 4:6, ASV fn), and a “well” [phrear – a cistern] (4:11-12), suggesting that its water was supplied by both an underground spring and rain. “Abundant water comes from springs emerging all along the north and east flanks of Mount Gerizim” (Stern, IV.1346). The biblical text is strikingly accurate.<br />The Weary Savior<br />When the Lord arrived at Jacob’s well, he sat down, “being wearied with his journey” (4:6). The Greek word for “weary” is kopiao (from kopos, in secular Greek, a beating, or weariness caused by it). As we might express it, the Savior was “beat,” i.e., exhausted. John notes that it was “about the sixth hour.” If the apostle, writing from Ephesus in the late first century, was employing Roman civil time in his Gospel account, this would be about six in the evening (cf. Westcott, 282; Edersheim, 1947, I.408). He possibly had walked all day.<br />We must not rush by the phrase too quickly. It emphasizes the humanity of our Lord. I should underline the term “wearied,” and in my Bible margin write, “for me.” It was only because of his great love for sinful man that the eternal Word (Jn. 1:1) became incarnate (1:14) and endured the rigors of humankind. He was hungry (Mt. 4:2), thirsty (Jn. 19:28), tired (Jn. 4:6), tearful (Jn. 11:35), and even fearful (Heb. 5:7). Think about it—he who effortlessly created the entire universe, now is weary—for you and me!<br />A Samaritan Woman Approaches<br />John records these words: “There came a woman of Samaria to draw water . . .” (4:7). Two things are significant.<br />First, she was a Samaritan, and, as the apostle comments, “Jews have no dealings with Samaritans” (9).<br />Second, her gender presented an obstacle. Normally, Jewish men did not speak to women in public (4:27). Let us explore these two matters.<br /><br />1. The most common view as to the origin of the Samaritans is that they were a mongrel breed who developed as a result of intermarriages between earlier Hebrews of the northern kingdom of Israel, and the Assyrian settlers in Israel following the captivity of the northern kingdom in 722-21 B.C. Other pagans eventually infiltrated the land and mingled with them (cf. Ezr. 4:2,9,10). <br />The term is found in the Old Testament only in 2 Kings 17:29, being applied to the remnant in the land. This group had their own brand of religion—a mixture of “Jehovah” worship and heathenism. Josiah, the good king of Judah, had sought to remedy this wickedness in his day (cf. 2 Chron. 34:6-7).<br />There was much animosity between Jews and Samaritans. When the Jews were rebuilding Jerusalem (following the Babylonian captivity, 606-536 B.C.), the Samaritans offered their services. They were summarily rebuffed (Ezr. 4:1-3), and the Samaritans responded in kind (Ezr. 4:4ff). Josephus characterizes the Samaritans as idolaters and hypocrites (Ant., 9.14.3). Edersheim quotes a Jewish saying: “May I never set eyes on a Samaritan” (1947, I.401).<br />Several centuries before the birth of Christ, the Samaritans had built their own temple on Mt. Gerizim to rival the one in Jerusalem. Here, they offered sacrifices according to the Mosaic code. Anderson notes that during the reign of Antiochus IV (175-164 B.C.),<br /><br />“the Samaritan temple was renamed either Zeus Hellenios (willingly by the Samaritans according to Josephus) or, more likely, Zeus Xenios (unwillingly in accord with 2 Macc. 6:2)” (Bromiley, 4.304). <br />This temple was destroyed by John Hyracanus in about 128 B.C., having been in existence about 200 years. Only a few stone remnants of it exist today.<br />During the first century, the religion of the Samaritans was similar to that of the Jews, except that they were more liberal—more kindred spirits of the Sadducees, for example, than the Pharisees. They accepted the Pentateuch, observed certain Jewish feasts, and longed for the coming Messiah (Jn. 4:25).<br />Religiously, though, they were considered as foreigners. When Jesus instituted the limited commission (Mt. 10:1ff), the Samaritans were excluded. That by no means indicates, however, that the Savior was unconcerned with these precious souls—as this very account proves.<br />2. The Jewish attitude towards women was less than ideal. While the Old Testament afforded great dignity to womanhood (cf. Prov. 31:10ff), the Hebrews, over the years, had imbibed some of the attitudes of paganism. Many a Jewish man started the day with a prayer to God, expressing thanks that he was neither a Gentile, a slave, or a woman! <br />A Hebrew man did not talk with women “in the street”—not even with his mother, sister, daughter or wife! (cf. Lightfoot, 3.286-287). According to the most liberal view of Deuteronomy 24:1, a Hebrew husband could divorce his wife if she was found “familiarly talking with men” (Edersheim, 1957, 157).<br />William Barclay even tells of a segment of the Pharisees known as the “bleeding and bruised” Pharisees; when they saw a woman approaching, they would close their eyes, hence, were running into things constantly! (142-143). And yet the Master addressed this woman: “Give me to drink.”<br />The Son of God, therefore, in one fell swoop, broke through two barriers—the one steeped in racial bigotry, the other a hurtful disposition that distanced the man from one of the sweetest treasures of God’s creations.<br />The Influence of Jesus<br />One of the statements in this narrative which seems almost incidental is where John comments that the Lord’s disciples, who were traveling with him, had “gone into the city to buy food” (4:8). Upon closer examination, it is very significant.<br />Normally, Jews did not eat food that was produced or handled by Samaritans. The rabbis taught:<br /><br />“Let no Israelite eat one mouthful of any thing that is a Samaritan’s; for if he eat but a little mouthful, he is as if he ate swine’s flesh” (Lightfoot, 3.275).<br />And yet, the disciples are buying food in Sychar. Perhaps they were already beginning to be influenced by Jesus’ kindly disposition towards all those fashioned in the image of God. One cannot but be reminded of a later circumstance when, observing the boldness of Peter and John, certain Jewish leaders “took knowledge of them, that they had been with Jesus” (Acts 4:13).<br />Living Water<br />When Christ asked of this unnamed woman a drink of water, he challenged the best from her. It is commonly the case that when we offer to assist someone who harbors a grudge against us, they will ruffle up and resist. Yet, if they are petitioned for assistance, they surprisingly respond. Jesus appealed to this lady’s kinder instincts, thus eroding the cultural wall between them.<br />The woman, with perhaps a little edge to her voice, responded, “How is it that you, a Jew [which she could discern by his clothing and manner of speech], asks a drink of me, a Samaritan woman?” (4:9). She is taken aback, but intrigued. Who is this stranger who is willing to address me?<br />The Lord seizes the opportunity, lifts the conversation to a higher plateau, and arrests her attention further by introducing several matters that were bound to stimulate her interest.<br />Christ said:<br /><br />“If you knew the gift of God, and who it is that says to you, Give me to drink; you would have asked of him, and he would have given you living water” (4:10). <br />Note that:<br /><br />a. Jesus spoke of a “gift.” The Greek term is dorea, used only here in the Gospel accounts, which actually signifies a “free gift” (Vine, 341). A “free gift” stimulates anyone’s interest! <br />b. Employing symbolism appropriate to the occasion, he mentions a “living” water, i.e., a water that bestows life. This could mean something quite significant to a person whose day-to-day existence was characterized by deadness. <br />c. He associates these blessings with a “who,” i.e., he suggested that she was talking at this very moment to someone special, a depository of “life.”<br />There was a great deal of subtle information packed into a seemingly ordinary statement. It was, in fact, the gospel in miniature.<br />Consider:<br /><br />a. The offer of salvation to a rebellious world is the expression of God’s grace; it is a free gift which cannot be merited or earned (Eph. 2:8-9; Rom. 6:23). <br />b. It is available only through that Person who was conversing with the Samaritan woman, the Messiah (Jn. 14:6; Acts 4:11-12). <br />c. The result is the promise of “life,” i.e., union with God, for those who are dead in sin (Rom. 6:23; Eph. 2:1).<br />The Lord’s statement produced a startling effect. The woman immediately changes her tone and addresses the friendly stranger with a term of respect.<br />“Sir,” she says with some bewilderment, “you have nothing to draw with, and the well is deep; where will you get that living water? You’re not greater than our father Jacob, are you, who gave us this well, which provided water for him, his family, and his livestock?”<br />She is still thinking of literal water of some sort, and her question implies a negative answer (as the Greek construction indicates). The Savior gently nudges her forward. He wants to emphasize that he is not speaking of the kind of water contained in Jacob’s well.<br />And so he says, in effect, “one can keep on drinking [a present tense form, suggesting sustained action] of this water, and he will be thirsty again; but anyone who takes but a swallow [an aorist tense form – an act] of the water about which I’m speaking, won’t ever thirst again.” The Lord went on to point out that the spiritual “water” of which he spoke would become a bountiful “fountain,” issuing in eternal life, i.e., salvation.<br />Still not grasping the elevated meaning of the Master’s message, but being tantalized, the woman courteously urged Jesus to: “give me this water” (15).<br />Sin Gently Exposed<br />The Samaritan lady obviously had both the need for salvation, and at least a threshold interest in things divine. Christ determines, therefore, that it is now time to bring the discussion closer to home.<br />In so doing he must accomplish two goals. First, he must penetrate her conscience with a sense of sin. Second, it is imperative that he establish his own authority as a spokesman from God.<br />“Go, call your husband, and return,” instructed the Lord.<br />Abruptly (dropping that polite, “Sir”), she shot back: “I don’t have a husband!”<br />If I may paraphrase, Christ replied: “You’ve told the truth, lady. But the fact is, you’ve had five husbands, and the man you now are with actually is not your husband. You revealed more truth than you intended” (cf. 4:18).<br />There are two ways of looking at this—neither of which puts this woman in a favorable light. Consider the Greek verb echo, rendered “have” (vs. 17), a form of which is employed four times in verses 17 and 18. It may be used in the sense of “married to” (cf. Mt. 22:28; Mk. 6:18; 1 Cor. 5:1), or it can signify to “have” or “be with.”<br />And so, the Lord may have been saying to the woman: “You’ve been married to five husbands, and the man to whom you are now ‘married’ is not a ‘husband’ in the true sense.”<br />Or, he may have been suggesting this: “You’ve been married five times, and the man with whom you now are living cannot be called a ‘husband.’” Leon Morris, in his scholarly commentary on John’s Gospel, has discussed this matter in some detail (264-265). The point is—she was in a sinful relationship and she needed the salvation that only he could offer.<br />It was a startling revelation to the woman. This stranger had exposed details of her life he could not possibly have known naturally. Later she will tell her villagers: “Come see a man who told me all things I ever did!” (29). That, of course, is hyperbole. But the information revealed by Jesus was so dramatic that it seemed like he had drawn the curtain back on every foul deed she had ever done!<br />The woman was intelligent. She was a logician! Christ had evidenced supernatural knowledge. Thus, the woman (returning to her respectful form of address) said: “Sir, I perceive [Grk. theoreo – to give careful observation to detail] that you are a prophet” (19).<br />Here is an important point. Since the Samaritans believed there was no “prophet” after Moses, except the one of whom the great Hebrew leader had spoken—“a prophet like unto me” (Dt. 18:15ff)—whom they identified with the “Messiah,” this lady was toying gradually with the notion that this man could possibly be the Messiah. Still, she was uncomfortable; and so she shifted the direction of the conversation from her personal problems to that of worship—a topic, however, which undoubtedly was of genuine interest to her.<br />True Worship<br />Possibly pointing to nearby Mt. Gerizim, she said: “Our fathers worshipped [past tense] in this mountain, but you [plural – Jews] say that Jerusalem is the necessary place of worship.” She was referring to the Samaritan temple that had existed on Gerizim, but had been destroyed a century and a half earlier (hence her use of the past tense is precise).<br />There was a long-standing controversy between the Samaritans and the Jews as to where worship was to be rendered. The Samaritans contended for Gerizim, the Hebrews for Jerusalem. The Jews were right, of course (cf. 2 Chron. 6:6; 7:12; Psa. 78:68), but that was rather immaterial at this point. Jesus observed that the time was coming when worship would not be a matter of some external place (cf. Acts 17:24); rather, it would be spiritual in nature. This is a clear indication that the end of the Mosaic system itself was nearing.<br />In drawing the contrast between Samaritan worship and Hebrew worship, Christ emphasized that true worship is more than emotion; it is grounded in knowledge.<br />“You [Samaritans] worship that which you do not know . . .” (22). Morris notes that the “that which” (a neuter form) probably denotes an ignorance of the whole system of correct worship (270). Since the knowledge of proper worship comes through sacred revelation (the Scriptures), and since the Samaritans rejected all Old Testament scripture save the Pentateuch, it is not surprising that they “knew not” about proper worship.<br />Away goes the contention that the format of worship is immaterial, so long as one is sincere. Then, almost as a side thought, the Lord comments: “For salvation [literally, ‘the salvation’] is come from the Jews.” God had been working a plan via the Hebrew nation.<br />Christ then declared that the hour was coming—indeed now is, i.e., the time is very imminent; cf. 5:25,—when there would be “true” worshippers. These are worshippers who belong to God as his redeemed children, and who worship consistent with divine revelation. The Lord describes this class of people as those who worship “the Father in spirit and in truth.” For “such,” i.e., worshippers of this quality, the Father “seeks” [constantly – present tense].<br />It must be noted in this connection that God does not “seek” human worship for any selfish motive. He is not served by men’s hands “as though he needed anything” (Acts 17:25). Being infinite in all his attributes, Jehovah is not enhanced in any way by human servitude. Clearly, he desires our service because of what it will do for us. Accepting our worship is an act of his kindness! (See “Archives”, October 14, 1998—“Why Humanity Should Serve God”.)<br />From this context one learns that genuine worship is composed of three elements. Each of these must be briefly considered.<br /><br />1. The proper object of worship is deity, and only deity (Mt. 4:10). While this context deals specifically with the Father, other texts reveal that both the Son and the Holy Spirit, as possessing the nature of God, are objects of worship. <br />Deity, as a holy entity, is worthy of praise (Psa. 18:3). It is sinful to worship nature (Rom. 1:22ff) or objects crafted by human skill (Acts 17:29). Lust for money, power, etc., can even be a form of idolatry (cf. Col. 3:5).<br />2. True worship must be in “spirit.” Genuine worship involves the plunging of one’s spirit into the act (cf. Rom. 1:9; 1 Cor. 14:15) in a humble and sincere way (cf. Josh. 24:14). This disposition eschews the superficial, the ostentatious (cf. Mt. 6:1ff), the self-centered (Lk. 18:9ff), and the hypocritical (Mt. 5:23-24; 15:7-9). <br />3. Acceptable worship conforms to “truth,” i.e., to the “content of Christianity as the absolute truth” (Arndt, 35). It is not “truth” as one feels it to be, i.e., subjectively determined, but “truth” as it actually is, measured by divine revelation (Jn. 17:17). Thiselton says that “true worship” is “that which accords with reality, which men grasp on the basis of revelation” (Brown, 3.891; cf. Phil. 3:3).<br />These comprehensive statements of Jesus to this Samaritan woman regarding the nature and scope of worship are wonderfully revealing. They contain a marvelous challenge for us to this very day.<br />The Messiah Cometh<br />We have already mentioned the fact that this inquisitive lady has concluded that Jesus is a prophet and that this term, in the Samaritan mind, was associated with the coming Messiah. The woman now introduces that topic directly.<br /><br />“I know that Messiah is coming (he that is called Christ): when he comes, he will declare all things to us” (25).<br />The parenthetical comment almost certainly is added by John to identify, for Gentile readers, the meaning of the term, “Messiah.” The woman has not concluded, precisely at this point, that Jesus is that Messiah, but she has “inched” closer to that irresistible proposition.<br />Note that this woman believed in: <br /><br />a. the promise of the Messiah; <br />b. the Messiah who had not come, but was yet to arrive; <br />c. the Messiah who would be a person (not a mere ideal “concept,” as alleged by modern Jews); and, <br />d. the Messiah who would be a teacher, not a military conqueror. <br />In some respects she seems to have had a clearer vision of the Messiah than even the Savior’s disciples!<br />How is it that those who believed only in the inspiration of the Pentateuch could know of the coming Messiah? Because, quite obviously, there is sufficient evidence therein to point in that direction.<br />The first messianic glimpse was in Genesis 3:15, where it was indicated that the woman’s “seed” would ultimately crush Satan. Later, Abraham was told that through his offspring all nations of the earth would be blessed (Gen. 22:18). Jacob had foretold the coming of “Shiloh” [rest-giver] from the tribe of Judah (Gen. 49:10).<br />In Exodus the Messiah had been foreshadowed in the passover “lamb” (Jn. 1:29; 1 Cor. 5:7), and in Leviticus various offerings prepared the studious mind for the Messiah’s redeeming sacrifice (Lev. 1-5).<br />In Numbers the death of him who was to be “lifted up,” thus to provide healing, was prefigured (Num. 21), and Balaam spoke of the “star” that would arise out of Jacob, the sceptre out of Israel, to destroy the enemies of Jehovah (Num. 24:17-19). And, as earlier noted, Moses told of “the prophet” like unto him, to whom all would owe obedience (Dt. 18:15-19).<br />Here is an interesting question to ponder. If the Samaritans could discern the coming of the Messiah, and subsequently identify Christ as the fulfillment of that abbreviated collection of prophecies—upon the basis of only five Old Testament documents—what does that say about the Jews, who mostly have been unable to accept Jesus as the Christ on the basis of more than 300 prophecies in thirty-nine different books? (See 2 Corinthians 3:14ff.)<br />Following the woman’s acknowledgement of the promised Messiah, Jesus simply said to her: “I, the very one speaking to you, am he.”<br />Professor Laney’s comment is interesting:<br /><br />“The Greek text literally reads, ‘I am, the one speaking to you.’ The words ‘I am’ (ego eimi) are used in the Septuagint (Ex. 3:14) in connection with the revelation of God’s personal name, Yahweh” (97). <br />This same expression, ego eimi, frequently was employed by Jesus, as recorded in John’s Gospel, to stress his identification with the Father (cf. 6:20,35,41,48,51; 8:12,18,24,28,58; 9:9; 13:19; 18:5,6,8). It is a subtle affirmation of deity.<br />Word of the Messiah Spreads<br />As the disciples returned from their mission to obtain food in the city, they were amazed to discover Jesus “speaking” (the imperfect tense suggests an extended conversation) to this woman, yet not a one of them was presumptuous enough to ask the Lord: “What do you want from her?” or, “Why are you talking with this woman?” The very presence of the Lord was awesome.<br />Presently the woman left her water pot and went into the city. Mention of the water pot is a curious detail (that lends authenticity to the narrative). Was she so elated that she forgot her initial mission to the well? Or did she intend to quickly return, and the jar could be reclaimed then?<br />Her testimony to the citizens of the community was compelling indeed. She claimed to have met a man “who told me all things that ever I did.” This was a strong suggestion of Jesus’ supernatural nature. Then, with a brilliant stoke of diplomacy, she asked (if we may paraphrase the original language): “This couldn’t be the Christ, could it?”<br />In the Greek, the particle meti implies an expected negative response. When one remembers that a woman’s testimony was not counted for much in that culture, this lady’s shrewdness is revealed by the way in which she handled this matter. She taunted them with a question which elicited a negative answer, leaving them perfectly at ease to draw their own conclusion and contradict her!<br />Her careful choice of words produced the exact response for which she hoped. The people of Sychar departed from the city and made their way (so the force of the imperfect verb – “were coming”) to find him. In the meantime, the disciples attempted to persuade Jesus to eat of the food they had brought. The Lord knew, though, that their education at this time was more important than satisfying his physical hunger. So he raised the discussion to a higher level by means of an enigmatic saying.<br />“I have food to eat of which you are not aware,” he said.<br />They murmured among themselves, “Did someone else bring him food?”<br />The Lord then explained his symbolism. “I have a nourishment that transcends the physical. It is to accomplish the plan for which God sent me.”<br />Note that Christ affirms that his presence on earth is the result of Heaven’s sending activity.<br />The Promise of Harvest<br />We may surmise from verse 35 that it is December or January on the occasion of this journey (since the harvest occurs in April/May). As the Lord and his disciples looked upon the greening fields nearby, revealing such promise of a healthy crop to be harvested later, the Master seized upon the occasion to further instruct his men.<br />“You are saying,” he began, “that in four months, harvest time will be here; aren’t you?” “Look,” he continued (perhaps beckoning towards a multitude approaching down the road), “lift up your eyes to the ‘human crop,’ who, even now, are ripe for harvest.”<br />It is a reality that some souls are riper than others (cf. Acts 16:6-10).<br />The Lord stresses that both those who sow and those who reap are laborers together, and that their combined activity will result in the production of fruit, i.e., souls who will inherit eternal life. There are a couple of points here that need emphasizing.<br />First, Jesus wants the disciples to know that other preparation has been in progress with reference to the Samaritans that will issue ultimately in these people coming into a knowledge of the truth. The writings of Moses (in the Pentateuch) doubtless had influenced them. The preparatory work of John the Baptist may have affected them to some extent, at least indirectly.<br />Second, Christ is suggesting to the disciples that their labor, eventually, will involve evangelizing among these people. This is a prophetic truth that they could hardly appreciate at this moment, but they would grasp it later.<br />From this we learn this important principle. It is almost never the case that one person is solely responsible for leading another to the Savior. Usually, there are various people who have contributed to the process along the way. Some plant, others water, but God gives the increase (cf. 1 Cor. 3:6). Surely this should help us to put the matter into proper focus when we are tempted to assume most of the credit for someone’s conversion to the Lord.<br />The Fruit at Sychar<br />We will subsequently learn that Jesus spent two days in Sychar teaching the honest people of that community (40). There are several things which challenge our attention in this concluding paragraph of the narrative we have been considering. Let us look at them one by one.<br /><br />1. John says that “many of the Samaritans believed on him.” This reveals that Jesus truly had prophesied correctly; this was an area “white” unto harvest. <br />Further, it indicates that, in spite of their jaded religious background—very unlikely candidates for belief—these folks were prime subjects for the gospel. We humans are unable to judge the quality of the human heart based upon externals.<br />2. The Samaritans believed initially on the basis of the woman’s testimony. Her confession regarding the exposure of her past probably was so explicit and beyond the realm of fabrication, that she became a compelling advocate for the “prophetic credibility” of Christ. This is very telling when we remember that a woman’s word counted for almost nothing. Women “could not act as legal witnesses” (Bromiley, 4.1093). But this woman’s testimony was so powerful that it transcended that cultural barrier. <br />Moreover, the fact that John records this element of the story gives the narrative an aura of veracity; such a detail would never have been concocted by a fraudulent writer attempting to provide plausibility to the ministry of Jesus.<br />3. John records that the Samaritans “besought” the Lord to abide with them. The word “besought” is an imperfect tense form; they “kept on asking” him to remain with them. The suggestion may be that Jesus resisted at first, perhaps feeling the urgency of his journey, but then, maybe, relented to their pleadings. If that is the case, it reveals how the Master can be touched with our sincere urging. They enjoyed two precious days with the Creator of the universe just because they asked. <br />As James would later write: ”. . . you have not, because you ask not” (4:2b). The disposition of these Samaritans was in such glaring contrast to others of their kind who, on another occasion, “did not receive him” (Lk. 9:53). <br />4. In addition to the initial “many” who believed, John says that as a result of Jesus’ sojourn with them, “many more believed.” This time, though, it was “because of his word.” They were grateful for the woman’s role in introducing them to Jesus, but, as a result of their personal investigation, they became all the more convinced. <br />One may initially believe the facts of the gospel based upon his confidence in the veracity of a loved one or friend. The time must come, however, that he investigates the facts on his own, and comes to a deeper faith.<br />5. They had not come to a conviction that Jesus was merely a wise philosopher or a benevolent socialist; rather, the evidence to which they were exposed during those two important days grounded them in the truth that this was the Savior of the world. <br />No, they were not “universalists,” believing that all would be saved—regardless of their obedience; rather, they came to the understanding that all people were subject to the universal blessings of the gospel. They knew that Christ was more than just a Savior to the Jews. He was their Savior too!<br />Note also that they did not restrict his saving mission to a small “elect” group, preordained before the world’s foundation; rather, he was potentially the Savior of the “world” (contra Calvinism).<br /><br />Epilogue<br />A study of this thrilling account would be incomplete if we did not notice the success of the gospel among the Samaritans following the establishment of the Christian system.<br />After the death of Stephen, the Jerusalem church was scattered abroad. In this connection, Philip the evangelist went to Samaria and proclaimed Christ (Acts 8:5). The multitude “gave heed with one accord” to his message, which was, incidentally, buttressed with supernatural signs.<br />In this connection one recalls the conversion of Simon the sorcerer (8:9ff). When the report of Philip’s success came to the attention of the apostles up in Jerusalem, they sent Peter and John to Samaria, and the new converts were supplied with spiritual gifts to supplement their ministry (8:14ff). Subsequently, the gospel was proclaimed in “many villages” of the Samaritans (8:25).<br />Clearly, much of this success is traceable to the visit of Jesus to that region, as recorded in John 4:5ff.Duke Eversmeyerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12979421184987312497noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7936381627778855349.post-87762374744234117512007-11-12T18:27:00.000-08:002007-11-12T18:31:21.106-08:00Lesson 10 Prodigal Son/Good SamaritanThe Parable of the Good Samaritan is a famous New Testament parable appearing only in the Gospel of Luke (10:25-37). The majority view indicates this parable is told by Jesus in order to illustrate that compassion should be for all people, and that fulfilling the spirit of the Law is just as important as fulfilling the letter of the Law. Jesus puts the definition of neighbor into an enlarged context, beyond what people usually thought of as a neighbor.<br /><br />The incident begins when a religious scholar of the Law tests Jesus by asking him what is necessary to inherit eternal life. Jesus asks the lawyer what the Mosaic Law says about it. When the lawyer quotes the scripture, saying "And thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thine heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy might." (Deuteronomy 6:5), and the parallel law of "Love thy neighbor as thyself" (Leviticus 19:18), Jesus says that he has answered correctly — "Do this and you will live," he tells him. See also this section of Ministry of Jesus. This can be understood as meaning that those who follow the law, Jewish or not, will be able to inherit eternal life.[2]<br />But the lawyer then asks Jesus to tell him who his neighbor is. Jesus responds with a parable about a Jew who was attacked and robbed and left to die by the side of the road. (this was the 17-mile Jericho Road between Jericho and Jerusalem, used by travelers and tradesmen). Later, a priest saw the stricken figure and avoided him, presumably in order to maintain ritual purity. Similarly, a Levite saw the man and ignored him as well. Then a Samaritan passed by, and, despite the mutual antipathy between Samaritans and the Jewish population, he immediately rendered assistance by giving him first aid and taking him to an inn to recover while promising to cover the expenses. He pays the innkeeper two denarii, silver coins equal to an entire day's wages for an average laborer.<br />At the conclusion of the story, Jesus asks the lawyer, of the three passers-by, who was the stricken man's neighbour? The lawyer, apparently unwilling to say, "The Samaritan," responds, "The one who helped him." Jesus responds with "Go and do the same." So a "neighbor" is anyone who needs your love and help. Jesus has turned the attention away from the question "To whom do I owe an obligation?" and to the question, "To whom do I feel compassion?" Jesus is pointing out the nature, or subject, of love, not the object of it.<br />This parable is one of the most famous from the New Testament and its influence is such that to be called a Samaritan in Western culture today is to be described as a generous person who is ready to provide aid to people in distress without hesitation. In many English-speaking countries, a Good Samaritan law exists to protect from liability those who choose to aid people who are seriously ill or injured. Luke might have used this story as a prelude to Acts There the Samaritans are shown giving a positive response to the Christian message.<br />[edit] Historical context and modern recasting<br />It is important to note that Samaritans were despised by the story's target audience, the Jews. The Samaritans were also largely taught by their interpretation of history to hate Jews.[1] Thus the parable, as told originally, had a significant theme of non-discrimination and interracial harmony. But as the story reached those who were unaware of the status of Samaritans, this aspect of the parable became less and less discernible: fewer and fewer people ever heard of them in any context other than this one. To address this problem with the unfamiliar analogy, the story is often recast in a more recognizable modern setting where the people are ones in equivalent social groups known to not interact comfortably. For instance instead of a Jew being helped by a Samaritan one could place a Palestinian in that role, or even a member of Hezbollah aided by an orthodox Jew. One could also have a racist helped by a member of another race, a sexist man helped by a woman, or a devoutly religious person helped by an atheist, or any reverse or combination thereof. The message's essential point is that humanity's bonds in brotherhood transcend social and cognitive segmentations which we adopt in our lives.<br />Thus cast appropriately, the parable regains its socially explosive message to modern listeners: namely, that an individual of a social group they disapprove of can exhibit moral behaviour that is superior to individuals of the groups they approve; it also means that not sharing the same faith is no excuse to behave poorly, as there is a universal moral law. Many Christians have used it as an example of Christianity against racial prejudice. [3][4][5]<br />The Jewish Encyclopedia suggests that the parable was changed:[citation needed]<br />One of these parables deserves special mention here, as it has obviously been changed, for dogmatic reasons, so as to have an anti-Jewish application. There is little doubt that J. Halevy is right ("R. E. J." iv. 249-255) in suggesting that in the parable of the good Samaritan (Luke x. 17-37) the original contrast was between the priest, the Levite, and the ordinary Israelite—representing the three great classes into which Jews then and now were and are divided. The point of the parable is against the sacerdotal class, whose members indeed brought about the death of Jesus. Later, "Israelite" or "Jew" was changed into "Samaritan," which introduces an element of inconsistency, since no Samaritan would have been found on the road between Jericho and Jerusalem (ib. 30).<br />However, it can alternatively be argued that Jesus was simply making a moral point by introducing the third character as a Samaritan rather than an Israelite.<br />[edit] Theological analysis<br />While this parable is known for its social implications in our modern world, it also presents a very important contextual spiritual message. During his ministry Jesus was often accused of associating with the publicans and sinners by the Scribes and Pharisees (Luke 5:30). In the parable of the Good Samaritan Jesus reaffirms his reasons for doing so, which are also reported in Luke 5:31-32. The stricken figure in the parable represents all those who are spiritually sick, such as the gentiles and the sinners. That it was a priest and then a Levite who first passed by is significant beyond the irony of the situation: people who were expected to help, didn't, while someone whom the victim (and Jesus' audience) despised, did. The priest may have had an 'excuse' not to help since touching a dying or badly wounded person for someone so 'holy', while not forbidden, would be, in our modern vernacular, distasteful due to all the necessary cleansing rituals prescribed by Mosaic Law. The priest therefore decided that being ritually clean and "priestly" was more important than saving someone else's life. Jesus' unspoken challenge to all believers seems to be: would we help only if it's convenient, or are we willing to go out of our way to show compassion to a stranger?<br />[edit] Minority View<br />According to the minority view, understanding this parable requires recognizing the importance of the Lawyer's perspective. He began to test Jesus in Luke 10:25. His particular goal of questioning was to determine what he might do himself to obtain eternal life. Jesus answers with the tall, unreachable standard of loving the Lord your God with all your heart, soul and mind as well as loving your neighbor as yourself. He says do this and you will live, that is, you will have eternal life. Now the key comes in Luke 10:29 where it is revealed that the lawyer wanted to justify himself. In other words, he wanted to be able to claim he had accomplished what was required by the standard Jesus cited. He wanted to feel like he was good enough to qualify for eternal life. In order to do this, this man wanted a definition of neighbor that was not too challenging for him to say that he loved that person. Now, in presenting the Parable, Jesus provides an answer that is intended to set the standard high. The one you should consider your neighbor is the person you believe is the most undesirable. You have to love that person as yourself if you want to qualify yourself for eternal life. The point of Jesus' statements was to drive this lawyer to despair of his own efforts to qualify for eternal life. This conclusion is applied to all people. None can be that good or meet God's standard. Instead, the good news points us to another source for our righteousness and goodness that qualifies us for eternal life once we give up on finding it in ourselves. See also: Divine grace.<br />[edit] Allegory of the Fall and the Redemption<br />According to John Welch:[6]<br />"This parable’s content is clearly practical and dramatic in its obvious meaning, but a time-honored Christian tradition also saw the parable as an impressive allegory of the Fall and Redemption of mankind. This early Christian understanding of the good Samaritan is depicted in a famous eleventh-century cathedral in Chartres, France. One of its beautiful stained-glass windows portrays the expulsion of Adam and Eve from the Garden of Eden at the top of the window, and, in parallel, the parable of the good Samaritan at the bottom. This illustrates “a symbolic interpretation of Christ’s parable that was popular in the Middle Ages.”[7] ... The roots of this allegorical interpretation reach deep into early Christianity. In the second century A.D., Irenaeus in France and Clement of Alexandria both saw the good Samaritan as symbolizing Christ Himself saving the fallen victim, wounded with sin. A few years later, Clement’s pupil Origen stated that this interpretation came down to him from earlier Christians, who had described the allegory as follows:<br />The man who was going down is Adam. Jerusalem is paradise, and Jericho is the world. The robbers are hostile powers. The priest is the Law, the Levite is the prophets, and the Samaritan is Christ. The wounds are disobedience, the beast is the Lord’s body, the [inn], which accepts all who wish to enter, is the Church. … The manager of the [inn] is the head of the Church, to whom its care has been entrusted. And the fact that the Samaritan promises he will return represents the Savior’s second coming.[8]<br />"This allegorical reading was taught not only by ancient followers of Jesus, but it was virtually universal throughout early Christianity, being advocated by Irenaeus, Clement, and Origen, and in the fourth and fifth centuries by Chrysostom in Constantinople, Ambrose in Milan, and Augustine in North Africa. This interpretation is found most completely in two other medieval stained-glass windows, in the French cathedrals at Bourges and Sens."<br /><br /><br />The Good SamaritanLuke 10:25-37THEME: What must I do to inherit eternal life? <br />25. And behold, a certain lawyer stood up and put Him to the test, saying, "Teacher, what shall I do to inherit eternal life?" Lawyer: One who is an expert in the Law of Moses. Often this individual was called upon to settle legal issues. "He stood up." This is a social courtesy and a greeting of respect. Yet, in his heart he sought to test Jesus. This is a contradiction between his actions and his words.<br />26. And He said to him, "What is written in the Law? How does it read to you?" Jesus asks the lawyer about what he knows best: the law. He knows that keeping the law is the appropriate answer. He brings the issue out into the open. This is probably best since the Jewish leadership were probably concerned about Jesus' teachings on the Law.<br />27. And he answered and said, "You shall love the LORD your God with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your strength, and with all your mind; and your neighbor as yourself." It is interesting that this man of the law would quote something regarding love and not some ritual or set of rules. The standard set here is one which no one could keep. Perhaps he was testing Jesus by quoting what Jesus had taught before: love.<br />28. And He said to him, "You have answered correctly; Do this and you will live." Jesus, the man, instructs the man of the law, "You have answered correctly."<br />29. But wishing to justify himself, he said to Jesus, "And who is my neighbor?" The Lawyer does not show humility by saying something like, "How can I do this, since I am an imperfect and sinful man?" Instead, he seeks to justify himself. This is often the case with experts in moral law; they think they have their own lives covered pretty well because they look at their actions, not their hearts. The expected reply would be something like, "Your relative and your friend." Then the lawyer would be able to say that he has done this and thereby enjoy honor among the people there listening; However, Jesus said...<br />30. Jesus replied and said, "A certain man was going down from Jerusalem to Jericho; and he fell among robbers, and they stripped him and beat him, and went off leaving him half dead. Jesus expounds on the law of love. True love is put into action. It is not merely at concept or a feeling. There is a road that goes down from Jerusalem to Jericho. It is 17 miles long and drops about 3,000 feet in those 17 miles. It has long been a hazardous trip due to thieves and robbers. Jesus intentionally leaves the man undescribed. The audience, being Jewish, would naturally assume that he was a Jew. Being in this half dead state he would be unconscious. Since he is stripped, he then is unidentifiable. Historically, a person can be identified in one of two ways: his dress and his speech, i.e. dialect. The man is any person: void of ethnic background, void of stature, void of position<br />31. "And by chance a certain priest was going down on that road, and when he saw him, he passed by on the other side. The priest was most certainly riding because he was in the upper classes of society. The poor walk. Since, he moves to the other side, probably the priest did not actually see it happen. How can he be sure the wounded man is a neighbor since he cannot be identified? If the person lying there is a non Jew the priest could be risking defilement, especially if the person were actually dead. If he defiles himself he can not collect, distribute, and eat tithes. His family and servants will suffer the consequences with him. Priests were supposed to be ritually clean, exemplars of the law. There would be immediate shame and embarrassment suffered by them at the expense of the people and their peers for such defilement. Having just completed his mandatory two weeks of service, he would then need to return and stand at the Eastern Gate along with the rest of the unclean. Furthermore, in addition to the humiliation involved, the process of restoring ritual purity was time consuming and costly. It required finding, buying, and reducing a red heifer to ashes, and the ritual took a full week. The priest is in a predicament. Moreover, he cannot approach closer than four cubits to a dead man without being defiled, and he will have to overstep that boundary just to ascertain the condition of the wounded man.<br />32. "And likewise a Levite also, when he came to the place and saw him, passed by on the other side. "Levites were descendants of Levi but not of Aaron, and they assisted the priests (Aaron’s descendants) in the temple."1 The road spoken of here is a long one. It is very likely, according to those who have walked it, that a person traveling it, could see ahead of him a long way. The Levite, who is of a lower social class, may have been walking. He most probably saw the priest ahead of him and could have thought to himself, "If the priest may pass then so should I." Perhaps they might fear for their own safety. What if someone saw them with the naked and wounded person and reported to the officials that the priest and/or Levite committed a crime against the injured person?<br />33. "But a certain Samaritan, who was on a journey, came upon him; and when he saw him, he felt compassion, The Samaritans were a mixed race between the Jews of captivity and the Samaritan people of the land they were captive in. The relationship between the Jews and Samaritans was one of hostility because of some bad things that happened in the past. According to the Mishna, "He that eats the bread of the Samaritans is like to one that eats the flesh of swine" (Mishna Shebiith 8:10). The Mishna is the oral traditions that developed about the law, containing interpretations and applications to specific questions which the law deals with only in principle. Specifically, it is the collection of these traditions. The Samaritan is not a gentile. He is bound by the same law as the Jews. The Samaritan would not be naturally from that area, so the half dead man would certainly not qualify as his neighbor. "The Samaritan woman therefore *said to Him, “How is it that You, being a Jew, ask me for a drink since I am a Samaritan woman?” (For Jews have no dealings with Samaritans.)" (John 4:9). "The Jews answered and said to Him, “Do we not say rightly that You are a Samaritan and have a demon?” 49 Jesus answered, “I do not have a demon; but I honor My Father, and you dishonor Me,'" (John 8:48-49)<br />34. "and came to him, and bandaged up his wounds, pouring oil and wine on them; and he put him on his own beast, and brought him to an inn, and took care of him. The Samaritan risks defilement. He approaches this unidentifiable man and helps him. Oil and wine were poured out on the high altar before God. Note how the usage is mentioned after the Priest and Levite have failed to do their duty. Blood revenge: "Mosaic legislation established cities of refuge for people under the threat of death from blood vengeance retaliation. This legislation provided an escape valve for a custom it could not eradicate." Often when the guilty cannot be reached, vengeance may be administered to a member of his family. Often the vengeance would reach even to the most distant relations of the offending party. "Irrational minds seeking a focus for their retaliation do not make rational judgments, especially when the person involved is from a hated minority community."<br />35. "And on the next day he took out two denarii and gave them to the innkeeper and said, 'Take care of him; and whatever more you spend, when I return, I will repay you.' The Samaritan forfeits anonymity when he stays overnight and then says he would return. This is an acceptance of the potential threat of blood vengeance. The wounded man has no money. When it is time for him to leave, if he cannot pay the debt he can be arrested, Matthew 18:23-35. The Samaritan knows this and volunteers money (two danarri is two days wages) and whatever else is needed to see to the needs of this unidentified man. Additionally, the Samaritan had no way of insuring the return of his money. Therefore, it is safe to assume he did not expect it to be returned.<br /> The Robbers Priest and Levite The Samaritan Rob him Harm him by inaction Pays for him Leave him dying Leave him unhelped Leaves him cared for Abandon him Neglected him Promises to return The robbers hurt the man by violence, the Priest and Levite, by neglect. All three are guilty. "To the one who knows the right thing to do and does not do it, to him it is sin," (James 4:17). Jesus was like the Samaritan. He was willing to touch the unclean. He was willing to go to the lost, the outcast, and the needy. And, like the Samaritan, Jesus was an outcast in the eyes of the Lawyers, Priests, Scribes, Pharisees, and Saducees.<br />63. "Which of these three do you think proved to be a neighbor to the man who fell into the robbers' hands?" Jesus refuses to define who a neighbor is. Instead He asks a question proving something greater than the exact answer anticipated. Being a neighbor to someone is not limited to family relations or proximity. It is showing the love of God to all who are in need, who ever they may be, where ever they may be.<br />73. And he said, "the one who showed mercy toward him." And Jesus said to him, "Go and do the same." The Samaritans were so hated by the Jews that perhaps this lawyer did not want to comment a "Samaritan" and instead said, "the one who showed mercy toward him." The discussion began with a question: what must I do inherit eternal life. The conclusion is answered with what must be done. If we are to do this, we will quickly find that we are incapable of completing so perfect a love. Since the law requires perfect obedience, the doing of this lesson would be something most difficult for the lawyer. <br />Parable of the Prodigal Son<br /> <br />The Prodigal Son, also known as the Lost Son, is one of the best known parables of Jesus.<br />The story is found in Luke 15:11–32 of the New Testament of The Bible and is usually read on the third Sunday of Lent. It is the third and final member of a trilogy, following the Parable of the Lost Sheep and the Parable of the Lost Coin.<br />In the Gospel of Luke, Jesus tells the story of a man who has two sons. The younger demands his share of his inheritance while his father is still living, and goes off to a distant country where he "waste[s] his substance with riotous living", and eventually has to take work as a swine herder. There he comes to his senses, and determines to return home and throw himself on his father's mercy. But when he returns home, his father greets him with open arms, and hardly gives him a chance to express his repentance; he kills a "fatted calf" to celebrate his return. The older brother becomes jealous at the favored treatment of his faithless brother and upset at the lack of reward for his own faithfulness. But the father responds:<br />The Eastern Orthodox Church traditionally reads this story on the Sunday of the Prodigal Son,[citation needed] which in their liturgical year is the Sunday before Meatfare Sunday and about two weeks before the beginning of Great Lent. One common kontakion hymn of the occasion reads,<br />I have recklessly forgotten Your glory, O Father;<br />And among sinners I have scattered the riches which You gave to me.<br />And now I cry to You as the Prodigal:<br />I have sinned before You, O merciful Father;<br />Receive me as a penitent and make me as one of Your hired servants.<br />Pope John Paul II explored the issues raised by this parable in his second encyclical Dives in Misericordia (Latin for "Rich in Mercy") issued in 1980.<br />[edit] Arts<br /> <br /> <br />The Return of the Prodigal Son by Ivor Williams (1908-1982)<br />Arthur Sullivan set this story as an oratorio; the manuscript is currently held in the British Library, London. Performances are sadly seldom heard nowadays. This work was first performed at the Worcester Music Festival on Wednesday 1869-09-08.<br />The Prodigal Son is a 1982 Hong Kong action comedy film starring Yuen Biao and Lam Ching Ying which is very loosely based on the parable.<br />"Prodigal Son" is the name of a Kid Rock song on his album, The Polyfuze Method.<br />The Prodigal was an MGM film released in 1955 starring Lana Turner as the high priestess of Astarte, and Edmund Purdom as the Prodigal Son.<br />The Rolling Stones have a song called "Prodigal Son" on their album Beggars Banquet.<br />Barbecue for Ben is "A Musical for Young Voices Based on the Parable of the Prodigal Son" and "A Modern-Day Setting of the Parable of the Prodigal Son" in which a student named Ben tells the parable with modern day twists. It is by Donald F. Marsh.<br />"The Prodigal Son" is the Season 2 opener of the TV series Miami Vice, although it has virtually nothing to do with the parable itself.<br />"Prodigal Blues", a song by Billy Idol, compares the singer's struggles with drug addiction to the parable.<br />One of the tracks on the Bad Religion album New Maps of Hell is titled "Prodigal Son".<br />"Prodigal Son" is the name of a song by the British band Iron Maiden on their 1981 release Killers.<br />"Prodigal Son's Prayer" is the final track on country music singer Dierks Bentley's 2006 album Long Trip Alone.<br />Steel Pulse, a reggae band, released a song titled "Prodigal Son" on their 1978 album Handsworth Revolution.<br />The prodigal son is mentioned in James Blunt's song "Billy", from his album Back to Bedlam.<br />The Prodigal Son is an opera by Benjamin Britten with a libretto by William Plomer.<br />"The Prodigal Son" is a ballet in three scenes by Sergei Prokofiev.<br />"Tears of the Prodigal Son" is a famous poem by Croatian poet Ivan Gundulic.<br />Dustin Kensrue wrote a song entitled "Please Come Home" that is a contemporary version of the Prodigal Son.<br />Independent recording artist David Acton performs an instrumental interpretation of this parable, entitled "The Prodigal", on his 2006 CD Prodigal.<br />In Part One: Millennium Approaches of Tony Kushner's play Angels in America, the character Roy Cohn calls Joe Harper a prodigal son and says that "the world will wipe its dirty hands all over you".<br />Bono, the vocalist of the Irish band U2, wrote the song "The First Time" based on this parable.<br />In the Good Charlotte song "The River" the prodigal son is mentioned: "Like the prodigal son, I was out on my own, now I'm trying to find my way back home"<br />The band Two Gallants have a song titled "The Prodigal Son" on their album What the Toll Tells.<br />A book entitled Prodigal Son was co-written by Dean Koontz and Kevin J. Anderson. It is the first in the series Dean Koontz's Frankenstein.<br />"Prodigal Daughter" is a Jonatha Brooke song on her 2007 Careful What You Wish For album.<br />The title track "The Signal" by Australian hip hop artist Urthboy addresses the parable in relation to ambition and internal rush hour.<br />The Veggie Tales video "The Wonderful Wizard of Ha's" by Big Idea is based on the parable of the prodigal son played out as the The Wonderful Wizard of Oz<br />n the Revised Version, if you will kindly look at the margin, you will find that the text there reads, "And kissed him much." This is a very good translation of the Greek, which might bear the meaning, "Kissed him earnestly," or "Kissed him eagerly," or "Kissed him often." I prefer to have it in very plain language, and therefore adopt the marginal reading of the Revised Version, "Kissed him much," as the text of my sermon, the subject of which will be, the overflowing love of God toward the returning sinner.<br /> The first word "and" links us on to all that had gone before. The parable is a very familiar one, yet it is so full of sacred meaning that it always has some fresh lesson for us. Let us, then, consider the preliminaries to this kissing. On the son's side there was something, and on the father's side much more. Before the prodigal son received these kisses of love, he had said in the far country, "I will arise and go to my father." He had, however, done more than that, else his father's kiss would never have been upon his cheek. The resolve had become a deed: "He arose, and came to his father." A bushelful of resolutions is of small value; a single grain of practice is worth the whole. The determination to return home is good; but it is when the wandering boy begins the business of really carrying out the good resolve, that he draws near the blessing. If any of you here present have long been saying, "I will repent; I will turn to God"; leave off resolving, and come to practicing; and may God in His mercy lead you both to repent and to believe in Christ!<br /> Before the kisses of love were given, this young man was on his way to his father; but he would not have reached him unless his father had come the major part of the way. When you give God and inch, He will give you an ell. If you come a little way to Him, when you are "yet a great way off" He will run to meet you. I do not know that the prodigal saw his father, but his father saw him. The eyes of mercy are quicker than the eyes of repentance. Even the eyes of our faith is dim compared with the eye of God's love. He sees a sinner long before a sinner sees Him.<br /> I do not suppose that the prodigal travelled very fast. I should imagine that he came very slowly— <br />"With heavy heart and downcast eye,<br />With many a sob and many a sigh."<br /><br />He was resolve to come, yet he was half afraid. But we read that his father ran. Slow are the steps of repentance, but swift are the feet of forgiveness. God can run where we scarcely limp, and if we are limping towards Him, He will run towards us. These kisses were given in a hurry; the story is narrated in a way that almost makes us realize that such was the case: there is a sense of haste in the very wording of it. His father "ran, and fell on his neck, and kissed him"—kissed him eagerly. He did not delay a moment; for though he was out of breath, he was not out of love. "He fell on his neck, and kissed him much." There stood his son ready to confess his sin; therefore did his father kiss him all the more. The more willing thou art to own thy sin, the more willing is God to forgive thee. When thou dost make a clean breast of it, God will soon make a clear record of it. He will wipe out the sin that thou dost willingly acknowledge and humbly confess before Him. He that was willing to use his lips for confession, found that his father was willing to use his lips for kissing him.<br /> See the contrast. There is the son, scarcely daring to think of embracing his father, yet his father has scarcely seen him before he has fallen on his neck. The condescension of God towards penitent sinners is very great. He seems to stoop from His throne of glory to fall upon the neck of a repentant sinner. God on the neck of a sinner! What a wonderful picture! Can you conceive it? I do not think you can; but if you cannot imagine it, I hope that you will realize it. When God's arm is about our neck, and His lips are on our cheek, kissing us much, then we understand more than preachers or books can ever tell us of His condescending love.<br /> The father "saw" his son. There is a great deal in that word, "saw." He saw who it was; saw where he had come from; saw the swineherd's dress; saw the filth upon his hands and feet; saw his rags; saw his penitent look; saw what he had been; saw what he was; and saw what he would soon be. "His father saw him." God has a way of seeing men and women that you and I cannot understand. He sees right through us at a glance, as if we were made of glass; He sees all our past, present and future.<br /> "When he was yet a great way off, his father saw him." It was not with icy eyes that the father looked on his returning son. Love leaped into them, and as he beheld him, he "had compassion on him"; that is, he felt for him. There was no anger in his heart toward his son; he had nothing but pity for his poor boy, who had got into such a pitiable condition. It was true that it was all his own fault, but that did not come before his father's mind. It was the state that he was in, his poverty, his degradation, that pale face of his so wan with hunger, that touched his father to the quick. And God has compassion on the woes and miseries of men. They may have brought their troubles on themselves, and they have indeed done so; but nevertheless God has compassion upon them. "It is of the Lord's mercies that we are not consumed, because His compassions fail not."<br /> We read that the father "ran." The compassion of God is followed by swift movements. He is slow to anger, but He is quick to bless. He does not take any time to consider how He shall show His love to penitent prodigals; that was all done long ago in the eternal covenant. He has no need to prepare for their return to Him; that was done on Calvary. God comes flying in the greatness of His compassion to help every poor penitent soul. <br />"On cherub and on cherubim,<br />Full royalty He rode;<br />And on the wings of mighty winds<br />Came flying all abroad."<br /><br />And when He comes, He comes to kiss. Master Trapp says that, if we had read that the father had kicked his prodigal son, we should not have been very much astonished. Well, I should have been very greatly astonished, seeing that the father in the parable was to represent God. But still, his son deserved all the rough treatment that some heartless men might have given; and had the story been that of a selfish human father only, it might have been written that "as he was coming near, his father ran at him, and kicked him." There are such fathers in the world, who seem as if they cannot forgive. If he had kicked him, it would have been no more than he had deserved. But no, what is written in the Book stands true for all time, and for every sinner,—"He fell on his neck, and kissed him"; kissed him eagerly, kissed him much.<br /> What does this much kissing mean? It signifies that, when sinners come to God, He gives them a loving reception, and a hearty welcome. If any one of you, while I am speaking, shall come to God, expecting mercy because of the great sacrifice of Christ, this shall be true of you as it has been true of many of us: "He kissed him much."<br /> I. First, this much kissing means MUCH LOVE. It means much love truly felt; for God never gives an expression of love without feeling it in His infinite heart. God will never give a Judas-kiss, and betray those whom He embraces. There is no hypocrisy with God; He never kisses those for whom He has no love. Oh, how God loves sinner! You who repent, and come to Him, will discover how greatly He loves you. There is no measuring the love He bears towards you. He has loved you before the foundation of the world, and He will love you when time shall be no more. Oh, the immeasurable love of God to sinners who come and cast themselves upon His mercy!<br /> This much kissing also means much love manifested. God's people do not always know the greatness of His love to them. Sometimes, however, it is shed abroad in our hearts by the Holy Ghost which is given unto us. Some of us know at times what it is to be almost too happy to live! The love of God has been so overpoweringly experienced by us on some occasions, that we have almost had to ask for a stay of the delight because we could not endure any more. If the glory had not been veiled a little, we should have died of excess of rapture, or happiness. Beloved, God has wondrous ways of opening His people's hearts to the manifestation of His grace. He can pour in, not now and then a drop of His love, but great and mighty streams. Madame Guyon used to speak of the torrents of love that come sweeping through the spirit, bearing all before them. The poor prodigal in the parable had so much love manifested to him, that he might have sung of the torrents of his father's affection. That is the way God receives those whom He saves, giving them not a meagre measure of grace, but manifesting an overflowing love.<br /> This much kissing means, further, much love perceived. When his father kissed him much, the poor prodigal knew, if never before, that his father loved him. He had no doubt about it; he had a clear perception of it. It is very frequently the case that the first moment a sinner believes in Jesus, he gets this "much" love. God reveals it to him, and he perceives it and enjoys it at the very beginning. Think not that God always keeps the best wine to the last; He gives us some of the richest dainties of His table the first moment we sit there. I recollect the joy that I had when first I believed in Jesus; and, even now, in looking back upon it, the memory of it is as fresh as if it were but yesterday. Oh, I could not have believed that a mortal could be so happy after having been so long burdened, and so terribly cast down! I did but look to Jesus on the cross, and the crushing load was immediately gone; and the heart which could only sigh and cry by reason of its burden, began to leap and dance and sing for joy. I had found in Christ all that I wanted, and rested in the love of God at once. So may it be with you also, if you will but return to God through Christ. It shall be said of you as of this prodigal, "The father saw him, and ran, and fell on his neck, and kissed him in much love."<br /> II. Secondly, this much kissing meant MUCH FORGIVENESS. The prodigal had many sins to confess; but before he came to the details of them, his father had forgiven him. I love confession of sin after forgiveness. Some suppose that after we are forgiven we are never to confess; but, oh, beloved, it is then that we confess most truly, because we know the guilt of sin most really! Then do we plaintively sing— <br />"My sins, my sins, my Saviour,<br />How sad on Thee they fall!<br />Seen through Thy gentle patience,<br />I tenfold feel them all,<br />I know they are forgiven,<br />But still their pain to me<br />Is all the grief and anguish<br />They laid, my Lord, on Thee."<br /><br /> To think that Christ should have washed me from my sins in His own blood, makes me feel my sin the more keenly, and confess it the more humbly before God. The picture of this prodigal is marvelously true to the experience of those who return to God. His father kissed him with the kiss of forgiveness; and yet, after that, the young man went on to say, "Father, I have sinned against heaven, and before thee, and am no more worthy to be called thy son." Do not hesitate, then, to acknowledge your sin to God, even though you know that in Christ it is all put away.<br /> From this point of view, those kisses meant, first, "Your sin is all gone, and will never be mentioned any more. Come to my heart, my son! Thou hast grieved me sore, and angered me; but, as a thick cloud, I have blotted out thy transgressions, and as a cloud thy sins."<br /> As the father looked upon him, and kissed him much, there probably came another kiss, which seemed to say, "There is no soreness left: I have not only forgiven, but I have forgotten too. It is all gone, clean gone. I will never accuse you of it any more. I will never love you any the less. I will never treat you as though you were still an unworthy and untrustworthy person." Probably at that there came another kiss; for do not forget that his father forgave him "and kissed him much," to show that the sin was all forgiven.<br /> There stood the prodigal, overwhelmed by his father's goodness, yet remembering his past life. As he looked on himself, and thought, "I have these old rags on still, and I have just come from feeding the swine," I can imagine that his father would give him another kiss, as much as to say, "My boy, I do not recollect the past; I am so glad to see you that I do not see any filth on you, or any rags on you either. I am so delighted to have you with me once more that, as I would pick up a diamond out of the mire, and be glad to get the diamond again, so do I pick you up, you are so precious to me." This is the gracious and glorious way in which God treats those who return to Him. As for their sin, He has put it away so that He will not remember it. He forgives like a God. Well may we adore and magnify His matchless mercy as we sing— <br />"In wonder lost, with trembling joy<br />We take the pardon of our God;<br />Pardon for crimes of deepest dye;<br />A pardon bought with Jesus' blood;<br />Who is a pardoning God like Thee?<br />Or who has grace so rich and free?"<br /><br /> "Well," says one, "can such a wonderful change ever take place with me?" By the grace of God it may be experienced by every man who is willing to return to God. I pray God that it may happen now, and that you may get such assurance of it from the Word of God, by the power of His Holy Spirit, and from a sight of the precious blood of Christ shed for your redemption, that you may be able to say, "I understand it now; I see how He kisses all my sin away; and when it rises, He kisses it away again; and when I think of it with shame, He gives me another kiss; and when I blush all over at the remembrance of my evil deeds, he kisses me again and again, to assure me that I am fully and freely forgiven." Thus the many kisses from the prodigal's father combined to make his wayward son feel that his sin was indeed all gone. They revealed much love and much forgiveness.<br /> III. These repeated kisses meant, next, FULL RESTORATION. The prodigal was going to say to his father, "Make me as one of thy hired servants." In the far country he had resolved to make that request, but his father with a kiss, stopped him. By that kiss, his sonship was owned; by it the father said to the wretched wanderer, "You are my son." He gave him such a kiss as he would only give to his own son. I wonder how many here have ever given such a kiss to anyone. There sits one who knows something of such kisses as the prodigal received. That father's girl went astray, and, after years of sin, she came back worn out, to die at home. He received her, found her penitent, and gladly welcomed her to his house. Ah, my dear friend, you know something about such kisses as these! And you, good woman, whose boy ran away, you can understand something about these kisses, too. He left you, and you did not hear of him for years, and he went on in a very vicious course of life. When you did hear of him, it well-nigh broke your heart, and when he came back, you hardly knew him. Do you recollect how you took him in? You felt that you wished that he was the little boy you used to press to your bosom; but now he was grown up to be a big man and a great sinner, yet you gave him such a kiss, and repeated your welcome so often, that he will never forget it, nor will you forget it either. You can understand that this overwhelming greeting was like the father saying, "My boy, you are my son. Despite all that you have done, you belong to me; however far you have gone in vice and folly, I own you. You are bone of my bone, and flesh of my flesh." In this parable Christ would have you know, poor sinner, that God will own you, if you come to Him confessing your sin through Jesus Christ. He will gladly receive you; for all things are ready against the day you return. <br />"Spread for thee the festal board,<br />See with richest dainties stored,<br />To thy Father's bosom pressed,<br />Yet again a child confessed;<br />Never from his house to roam,<br />Come and welcome, sinner, come."<br /><br /> The father received his son with many kisses and so proved that his prayer was answered. Indeed, his father heard his prayer before he offered it. He was going to say, "Father, I have sinned," and to ask for forgiveness; but he got the mercy, and a kiss to seal it, before the prayer was presented. This also shall be true of thee, O sinner, who art returning to thy God, through Jesus Christ! You shall be permitted to pray, and God will answer you. Hear it, poor, despairing sinner, whose prayer has seemed to be shut out from heaven! Come to your Father's bosom now, and He will hear your prayers; and, before many days are over, you shall have the clearest proofs that you are fully restored to the divine favour by answers to your intercessions that shall make you marvel at the Lord's loving-kindness to you.<br /> Further than this, you shall have all your privileges restored, even as this wandering young man was put among the children when he returned. As you see him now in the father's house, where he was received with the many kisses, he wears a son's robe, the family ring is on his finger, and the shoes of the home are on his feet. He eats no longer swine's food, but children's bread. Even thus shall it be with you if you return to God. Though you look so foul and so vile, and really are even more defiled than you look; and though you smell so strongly of the hogs among which you have been living that some people's nostrils would turn up at you, your Father will not notice these marks of your occupation in the far country with all its horrible defilement. See how this father treats his boy. He kisses him, and kisses him again, because he knows his own child, and, recognizing him as his child, and feeling his fatherly heart yearning over him, he gives him kiss after kiss. He kisses him much, to make him know that he has full restoration.<br /> In this repeated kissing we see, then, these three things: much love, much forgiveness, and full restoration.<br /> IV. But these many kisses meant even more than this. They revealed his father's EXCEEDING JOY. The father's heart is overflowing with gladness, and he cannot restrain his delight. I think he must have shown his joy by a repeated look. I will tell you the way I think the father behaved towards his son who had been dead, but was alive again, who had been lost, but was found. Let me try to describe the scene. The father has kissed the son, and he bids him sit down; then he comes in front of him, and looks at him, and feels so happy that he says, "I must give you another kiss," then he walks away a minute; but he is back again before long, saying to himself, "Oh, I must give him another kiss!" He gives him another, for he is so happy. His heart beats fast; he feels very joyful; the old man would like the music to strike up; he wants to be at the dancing; but meanwhile he satisfies himself by a repeated look at his long-lost child. Oh, I believe that God looks at the sinner, and looks at him again, and keeps on looking at him, all the while delighting in the very sight of him, when he is truly repentant, and comes back to his Father's house.<br /> The repeated kiss meant, also, a repeated blessing, for every time he put his arms round him, and kissed him, he kept saying, "Bless you; oh, bless you, my boy!" He felt that his son had brought a blessing to him by coming back, and he invoked fresh blessings upon his head. Oh sinner! If you did but know how God would welcome you, and how He would look at you, and how He would bless you, surely you would at once repent, and come to His arms and heart, and find yourself happy in His love.<br /> The many kisses meant, also, repeated delight. It is a very wonderful thing that it should be in the power of a sinner to make God glad. He is the happy God, the source and spring of all happiness; what can we add to His blessedness? And yet, speaking after the manner of men, God's highest joy lies in clasping His wilful Ephraims to His breast, when He has heard them bemoaning themselves and has seen them arising and returning to their home. God grant that He may see that sight even now, and have delight because of sinners returning to Himself! Yea, we believe it shall be even so, because of His presence with us, and because of the gracious working of the Holy Spirit. Surely that is the teaching of the prophet's words: "The Lord thy God in the midst of thee is mighty; He will save, He will rejoice over thee with joy; He will rest in His love, He will joy over thee with singing." Think of the eternal God singing, and remember that it is because a wandering sinner has returned to Him that He sings. He joys in the return of the prodigal, and all heaven shares in His joy.<br /> V. I have not got through my subject yet. As we take a fifth look, we find that these many kisses mean OVERFLOWING COMFORT. This poor young man, in his hungry, faint, and wretched state, having come a very long way, had not much heart in him. His hunger had taken all energy out of him, and he was so conscious of his guilt that he had hardly the courage to face his father; so his father gives him a kiss, as much as to say, "Come, boy, do not be cast down; I love you."<br /> "Oh, the past, the past, my father!" he might moan, as he thought of his wasted years; but he had no sooner said that than he received another kiss, as if his father said, "Never mind the past; I have forgotten all about that." This is the Lord's way with His saved ones. Their past lies hidden under the blood of atonement. The Lord saith by His servant Jeremiah, "The iniquity if Israel shall be sought for, and there shall be none; and the sins of Judah, and they shall not be found: for I will pardon them whom I reserve."<br /> But then, perhaps, the young man looked down on his foul garments, and said, "The present, my father, the present, what a dreadful state I am in!" And with another kiss would come the answer, "Never mind the present, my boy. I am content to have thee as thou art. I love thee." This, too, is God's word to those who are "accepted in the Beloved." In spite of all their vileness, they are pure and spotless in Christ, and God says of each one of them, "Since thou wast precious in My sight, thou hast been honourable, and I have loved thee. Therefore, though in thyself thou art unworthy, through My dear Son thou art welcome to My home."<br /> "Oh, but," the boy might have said, "the future, my father, the future! What would you think if I should ever go astray again?" Then would come another holy kiss, and his father would say, "I will see to the future, my boy; I will make home so bright for you that you will never want to go away again." But God does more than that for us when we return to Him. He not only surrounds us with tokens of His love, but He says concerning us, "They shall be My people, and I will be their God: and I will give them one heart, and one way, that they may fear Me for ever, for the good of them, and of their children after them: and I will make an everlasting covenant with them, that I will not turn away from them, to do them good; but I will put My fear in their hearts, that they shall not depart from me." Furthermore, He says to each returning one, "A new heart also will I give you, and a new spirit will I put within you: and I will take away the stony heart out of your flesh and I will give you an heart of flesh. And I will put My spirit within you, and cause you to walk in My statutes, and ye shall keep My judgments, and do them."<br /> Whatever there was to trouble the son, the father gave him a kiss to set it all right; and, in like manner, our God has a love-token for every time of doubt and dismay which may come to His reconciled sons. Perhaps one whom I am addressing says, "Even though I confess my sin, and seek God's mercy, I shall still be in sore trouble, for through my sin, I have brought myself down to poverty." "There is a kiss for you," says the Lord: "Thy bread shall be given thee, and thy water shall be sure." "But I have even brought disease upon myself by sin," says another. "There is a kiss for you, for I am Jehovah-Rophi, the Lord that healeth thee, who forgiveth all thine iniquities, who healeth all thine diseases." "But I am dreadfully down at the heel," says another. The Lord gives you also a kiss, and says, "I will lift you up, and provide for all your needs. No good thing will I withhold from them that walk uprightly." All the promises in this Book belong to every repentant sinner, who returns to God believing in Jesus Christ, His Son.<br /> The father of the prodigal kissed his son much, and thus made him feel happy there and then. Poor souls, when they come to Christ, are in a dreadful plight, and some of them hardly know where they are I have known them talk a lot of nonsense in their despair, and say hard and wicked things of God in their dreadful doubt. The Lord gives no answer to all that, except a kiss, and then another kiss. Nothings puts the penitent so much at rest as the Lord's repeated assurance of His unchanging love. Such a one the Lord has often received, "and kissed him much," that He might fetch him up even from the horrible pit, and set his feet upon a rock, and establish his goings. The Lord grant that many whom I am addressing may understand what I am talking about!<br /> VI. And now for our sixth head, though you will think I am getting to be like the old Puritans with these many heads. But I cannot help it, for these many kisses had many meanings: love, forgiveness, restoration, joy, and comfort were in them, and also STRONG ASSURANCE.<br /> The father kissed his son much to make him quite certain that it was all real. The prodigal, in receiving these many kisses, might say to himself, "All this love must be true, for a little while ago I heard the hogs grunt, and now I hear nothing but the kisses from my dear father's lips." So his father gave him another kiss, for there was no way of convincing him that the first was real like repeating it; and if there lingered any doubt about the second, the father gave him yet a third. If, when the dream of old was doubled, the interpretation was sure, these repeated kisses left no room for doubt. The father renewed the tokens of his love that his son might be fully assured of his reality.<br /> He did it that in the future it might never be questioned. Some of us were brought so low before we were converted, that God gave us an excess of joy when He saved us, that we might never forget it. Sometimes the devil says to me, "You are no child of God." I have long ago given up answering him, for I found that it is a waste of time to argue with such a crafty old liar as he is; he knows too much for me. But if I must answer him, I say, "Why, I remember when I was saved by the Lord! I can never forget even the very spot of ground where first I saw my Saviour; there and then my joy rolled in like some great Atlantic billow, and burst in a mighty foam of bliss, covering all things. I cannot forget it." That is an argument which even the devil cannot answer, for he cannot make me believe that such a thing never happened. The Father kissed me much, and I remember it full well. The Lord gives to some of us a clear deliverance such a bright, sunshiny day at our conversion, that henceforth we cannot question our state before Him, but must believe that we are eternally saved.<br /> The father put the assurance of this poor returning prodigal beyond all doubt. If the first kisses were given privately, when only the father and son were present, it is quite certain that, afterwards, he kissed him before men, where others could see him. He kissed him much in the presence of the household, that they also might not be calling in question that he was his father's child. It was a pity that the elder brother was not there also. You see he was away in the field. He was much more interested in the crops than in the reception of his brother. I have known such a one in modern days. He was a man who did not come out to week-evening services. He was such a man of business that he did not come out on a Thursday night, and the prodigal came home at such a time, and so the elder brother did not see the father receive him. If he lived now, he would probably not come to the church-meetings; he would be to busy. So he would not get to know about the reception of penitent sinners. But the father, when he received that son of his, intended all to know, once for all, that he was indeed his child. Oh, that you might get these many kisses even now! If they are given to you, you will have, for the rest of your life, strong assurance derived from the happiness of your first days.<br /> VII. I have done when I have said that I think that here we have a specimen of the INTIMATE COMMUNION which the Lord often gives to sinners when first they come to Him. "His father saw him, and had compassion, and ran, and fell on his neck, and kissed him much."<br /> You see, this was before the family fellowship. Before the servants had prepared the meal, before there had been any music or dancing in the family, his father kissed him. He would had cared little for all their songs, and have valued but slightly his reception by the servants, if, first of all, he had not been welcomed to his father's heart. So it is with us; we need first to have fellowship with God before we think much of union with His people. Before I go to join a church, I want my Father's kiss. Before the pastor gives me the right hand of fellowship, I want my heavenly Father's right hand to welcome me. Before I become recognized by God's people here below, I want a private recognition from the great Father above; and that He gives to all who come to Him as the prodigal came to his father. May He give to some of you now!<br /> This kissing, also, was before the table communion. You know the prodigal was afterwards to sit at his father's table, and to eat of the fatted calf; but before that, his father kissed him. He would scarcely have been able to sit easily at the feast without the previous kisses of love. The table communion, to which we are invited, is very sweet. To eat the flesh and drink the blood of Christ, in symbol, in the ordinance of the Lord's Supper, is, indeed, a blessed thing; but I want to have communion with God by way of the love-kiss before I come there. "Let Him kiss me with the kisses of His mouth." This is something private, ravishing, and sweet. God give it to many of you! May you get the many kisses of your Father's mouth before you come into the church, or to the communion table!<br /> These many kisses likewise came before the public rejoicing. The friends and neighbors were invited to share in the feast. But think how shamefaced the son would have been in their presence, if, first of all, he had not found a place in his father's love or had not been quite sure of it. He would almost have been inclined to run away again. But the father had kissed him much, and so he could meet the curious gaze of his old friends with a smiling face, until any unkind remarks they might have thought of making died away, killed by his evident joy in his father. It is a hard thing for a man to confess Christ if he has not had an overwhelming sense of communion with Him. But when we are lifted to the skies in the rapture God gives to us, it becomes easy, not only to face the world, but to win the sympathy of even those who might have opposed themselves. This is why young converts are frequently used to lead others into the light; the Lord's many kisses of forgiveness have so recently been given to them, that their words catch the fragrance of divine love as they pass the lips just touched by the Lord. Alas, that any should ever lose their first love, and forget the many kisses they have received from their heavenly Father!<br /> Lastly, all this was given before the meeting with the elder brother. If the prodigal son had known what the elder brother thought and said, I should not have wondered at all if he had run off, and never come back at all. He might have come near home, and then, hearing what his brother said, have stolen away again. Yes, but before that could happen, his father had given him the many kisses. Poor sinner! You have come in here, and perhaps you have found the Saviour. It may be that you will go and speak to some Christian man, and he will be afraid to say much to you. I do not wonder that he should doubt you, for you are not, in yourself, as yet a particularly nice sort of person to talk to. But, if you get your Father's many kisses, you will not mind your elder being a little hard upon you. Occasionally I hear of one, who wishes to join church, saying "I came to see the elders, and one of them was rather rough with me. I shall never come again." What a stupid man you must be! Is it not their duty to be a little rough with some of you, lest you should deceive yourselves, and be mistaken about your true state? We desire lovingly to bring you to Christ, and if we are afraid that you really have not yet come back to God, with penitence and faith, should we not tell you so, like honest men? But suppose that you have really come, and your brother is mistaken; go and get a kiss from your Father, and never mind your brother. He may remind you how you have squandered your living, painting the picture even blacker than it ought to be; but your Father's kisses will make you forget your brother's frowns. If you think that in a household of faith you will find everybody amiable, and everyone willing to help you, you will be greatly mistaken. Young Christians are often frightened when they come across some who, from frequent disappointment of their hopes, or from a natural spirit of caution or perhaps from a lack of spiritual life, receive but coldly those upon whom the Father has lavished much love. If that is your case, never mind these cross-grained elder brethren; get another kiss from your Father. Perhaps the reason it is written, "He kissed him much," was because the elder brother when he came near him, would treat him so coldly, and so angrily refuse to join in the feast.<br /> Lord, give to many poor trembling souls the will to come to Thee! Bring many sinners to Thy blessed feet, and while they are yet a great way off, run and meet them; fall on their neck, give them many kisses of love, and fill them to the full with heavenly delight, for Jesus Christ's sake! Amen.Duke Eversmeyerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12979421184987312497noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7936381627778855349.post-6528976189968228832007-11-02T19:09:00.001-07:002007-11-02T19:10:40.160-07:00Lesson 9 Healing of the Gentile Woman's DaughterHealing the Gentile Woman’s Daughter<br />Matthew Mark<br />Mat 15:21 Then Jesus went thence, and departed into the coasts of Tyre and Sidon. Mat 15:22 And, behold, a woman of Canaan came out of the same coasts, and cried unto him, saying, Have mercy on me, O Lord, thou Son of David; my daughter is grievously vexed with a devil. Mat 15:23 But he answered her not a word. And his disciples came and besought him, saying, Send her away; for she crieth after us. Mat 15:24 But he answered and said, I am not sent but unto the lost sheep of the house of Israel. Mat 15:25 Then came she and worshipped him, saying, Lord, help me. Mat 15:26 But he answered and said, It is not meet to take the children's bread, and to cast it to dogs. Mat 15:27 And she said, Truth, Lord: yet the dogs eat of the crumbs which fall from their masters' table. Mat 15:28 Then Jesus answered and said unto her, O woman, great is thy faith: be it unto thee even as thou wilt. And her daughter was made whole from that very hour. Mar 7:24 And from thence he arose, and went into the borders of Tyre and Sidon, and entered into an house, and would have no man know it: but he could not be hid. Mar 7:25 For a certain woman, whose young daughter had an unclean spirit, heard of him, and came and fell at his feet: Mar 7:26 The woman was a Greek, a Syrophenician by nation; and she besought him that he would cast forth the devil out of her daughter. Mar 7:27 But Jesus said unto her, Let the children first be filled: for it is not meet to take the children's bread, and to cast it unto the dogs. Mar 7:28 And she answered and said unto him, Yes, Lord: yet the dogs under the table eat of the children's crumbs. Mar 7:29 And he said unto her, For this saying go thy way; the devil is gone out of thy daughter. Mar 7:30 And when she was come to her house, she found the devil gone out, and her daughter laid upon the bed. <br /><br /><br /><br />Gentile Woman<br /><br />When I met Jesus, I was desperate. My little daughter had been taken by a demon that changed her into a violent and hateful creature. <br />Someone told me that Jesus could cast out demons and so I did not even think for a moment that he was a Jew and we were Gentiles. I asked until I found him and then just barged right in to the house where he was. <br />He looked at me and his words were harsh, but his face was kind. He said all the usual things about Gentiles being dogs, but there seemed to be a twinkle in his eye, and I would not be put off anyway.<br />Even as he spoke, I instantly knew that my daughter's affliction was my own fault -- the idols we kept and the magic spells we often spoke for good luck had given the unclean spirit entrance into our family. <br />But he did not berate me. Although I don't deserve anything good, he gave me more than I even knew I needed. I have my sweet daughter again and that would be enough. But he also gave me new life as a child of his Father, who loves Gentiles as well as Jews.<br /><br /><br />Healing the Gentile <br />Woman's Daughter<br />Matt 15:21; Mark 7:24<br />Matt 15:21-28 (web) <br />Jesus went out from there, and withdrew into the region of Tyre and Sidon. <br />Behold, a Canaanite woman came out from those borders, and cried, saying, <br />"Have mercy on me, Lord, you son of David! <br />My daughter is severely demonized!" <br />But he answered her not a word. His disciples came and begged him, saying, <br />"Send her away; for she cries after us." <br />But he answered, <br />"I wasn’t sent to anyone but the lost sheep of the house of Israel." <br />But she came and worshiped him, saying, "Lord, help me." <br />But he answered, <br />"It is not appropriate to take the children’s bread and throw it to the dogs." <br />But she said, "Yes, Lord, but even the dogs eat the crumbs <br />which fall from their masters’ table." <br />Then Jesus answered her, <br />"Woman, great is your faith! Be it done to you even as you desire." <br />And her daughter was healed from that hour. <br /> <br />What does this reveal about Jesus? <br />Jesus' willingness to heal is in proportion to one's faith regardless of racial, ethnic or religious barriers. <br />Notes: <br />The impression I have here is that Jesus is trying to do three things. <br />1. He is teaching his disciples. <br />2. He is helping to reveal the woman's quality of faith <br />3. He heals the daughter. <br />Far from taking on the racist attitudes the Jewish society and even his disciples may have towards Gentiles, not unlike that of many Jews today, it seems each time Jesus sees a Gentile exercising faith, he commends it as being great or even superior to that of Jews. Remember his comment on the centurion's faith, "I tell you, I have not found such great faith even in Israel." Lk 7:9 But of his own disciples and that of the Jews he often criticizes as being weak in faith. <br />Notice that this passage starts off with the disciples trying to get rid of this woman. Jesus, actually being well aware of the quality of faith this woman possessed, I can imagine he wanted to teach his disciples a lesson through this woman. So at first he played along with their condescending, insensitive, and heartless attitude. But he knew that the woman had the perseverance of faith and the level of humility that would keep her from being dissuaded from her objective regardless of the obstacles. <br />Jesus' main earthly message was indeed to the lost sheep of Israel - the Jews. But this is not to say that he couldn't or wouldn't do a bit of extracurricular activities with the Gentiles at times. Of course a time would come when Jew and Gentiles would be united in Christ under a common faith, but that was yet to come. Gentile believers had not been revealed as children of Abraham at this point, as Paul writes to the Gentiles in Galatia: "Understand, then, that those who believe are children of Abraham." Gal 3:7 And "If you belong to Christ, then you are Abraham's seed, and heirs according to the promise." Gal 3:29 But at this time the Jews tended to think only in terms of the flesh and thus Jews, even regardless of their faith or behavior, were all reckoned children of Abraham, a concept which would later be revealed to be inaccurate in a spiritual sense, though literally correct. <br />Jesus was using this literal fleshly sense of "children" here. So also with the "lost sheep". The "lost sheep" were not "Christians" just as the "children" he spoke of here were not Christians. The "lost sheep" are Jews who need to be saved. See the parable of the lost sheep. The "children" here are simply Jews. He was not speaking of those born of God, as Christians are today, but simply those who are reckon his people according to the flesh. This concept must be understand when interpreting the gospels and the apostle's writings. For the terminology Jesus used may mean something different at times than that of the apostles in their letters. <br />Application: <br />Jesus was the bread of life that was broken on the cross to become as crumbs swept off the Master's table being rejected by the Jews to be eaten up by Gentile dogs on the ground who would become the primary consituents of the Christian community. <br />This is a message only the humble would accept. For we all start off as dogs, not children but enemies of God. Colossians 1:21 "Once you were alienated from God and were enemies in your minds because of your evil behavior." And we must accept a broken Christ, one who died for our sins. "The message of the cross is foolishness to those who are perishing, but to us who are being saved it is the power of God."1 Corinthians 1:18 <br />But we are no longer dogs, but truly children of God. "Yet to all who received him, to those who believed in his name, he gave the right to become children of God--" John 1:12 As such we will sit at God's table and feast as children of God. But "I say to you that many will come from the east and the west, and will take their places at the feast with Abraham, Isaac and Jacob in the kingdom of heaven. But the subjects of the kingdom (unbelieving Jews) will be thrown outside, into the darkness, where there will be weeping and gnashing of teeth." Matt 8:11,12 <br />But in the process of conversion one must become God's dog by submitting to Christ as Lord and eating the crumbs, before he can become God's child and sit at the table in the Millenial Kingdom. <br />Great faith is a humble persevering faith, believing in God's ultimate goodness.Duke Eversmeyerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12979421184987312497noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7936381627778855349.post-9019502310022319642007-10-17T19:02:00.000-07:002007-10-17T19:04:19.710-07:00Lesson 8 Doubting ThomasDoubting Thomas<br /><br /><br /><br />Thomas is a late bloomer, I guess. A commercial fisherman, he grew up around the Sea of Galilee. Jesus came to Capernaum, calls him, and he follows. For three years Thomas follows. <br />Thomas's Pessimism and Courage<br />But Thomas is a pessimist. Some people rejoice to see a glass half full, but Thomas sees it half empty. Oh, he's full courage, but also possesses a streak of fatalism. Once, when Jesus and his disciples hear about their friend Lazarus's death near Jerusalem, the center of Jesus' opposition, Thomas comments darkly, "Yes, let's go there that we might die with him." His words are almost prophetic.<br />Soon, his world falls apart. Thomas sees his Master arrested in the Garden of Gethsemane and he flees for his life. On Good Friday he watches at a distance as they spike his Friend to a cross on the Roman killing grounds of Golgotha. As Jesus' life drains away, so does Thomas's hope.<br />Shock and Disbelief<br />On Saturday he is in shock. On Sunday he is so disillusioned that he doesn't gather with his fellow disciples for an evening meal. Thomas is dazed, hurt, bitter -- and lashing out. Monday morning, the disciples go looking for Thomas and tell him what has happened in his absence.<br />"Thomas, we were in that upper room where we'd been meeting. We lock the doors for protection. Yet, all of a sudden, Jesus appears. 'Peace, Shalom,' he says. Then he shows us his hands. There are jagged holes where the nails had been. He pulls back his tunic and shows us where the spear penetrated his chest. But he isn't weak or sick or dying. He is alive, raised from the dead!"<br />Afraid to Believe<br />"I don't believe it," barks Thomas. "I don't believe a word of it. You're seeing what you want to see. Jesus is dead. I saw him die, and part of me died with him. But he's dead, and the sooner you accept that fact, the better off you'll be. Give it up!"<br />Peter pleads with him. "Thomas, I saw him myself, I tell you, and he was as real as you are!"<br />Thomas is cold, with an edge in his voice that cuts like ice. "Unless I see the nail marks in his hands and put my hand into his side, I will not believe it."<br />But Thomas's anger cools, and by the next Sunday evening he is eating with his fellow disciples in the same locked room. Suddenly, Jesus stands among them once again and speaks -- "Shalom, peace be with you."<br /> Detail: "The Incredulity of Saint Thomas" (1601-02) by Italian artist Caravaggio (1573-1610). Click for full painting. <br />All the blood drains from Thomas' face. Jesus turns to him and speaks plainly, without any hint of rancor or sarcasm, "Put your finger here, see my hands." Jesus holds out his scarred hands for him to examine. Thomas recoils. Not out of fear, really, but from a mixture of amazement and revulsion. <br />Jesus begins to open his outer garment and says, "Reach out your hand and put it into my side. Stop doubting and believe."<br />My Lord and My God<br />Thomas is weeping now and then begins to sob out loud. Jesus reaches out and puts a hand on his shoulder. Then Thomas slips to his knees and says in awe, "My Lord and my God!"<br />Thomas, "Doubting Thomas," as he is sometimes called, is the first disciple to put into words the truth that Jesus is both Lord and God. "Doubting Thomas" utters the greatest confession of faith recorded anywhere in the Bible.<br />Jesus replies, "Because you have seen me, you have believed. Blessed are those who have not seen and yet have believed."<br />Preacher in the East<br />What happens to him? Doubting Thomas does not stay a doubter. When he sees the risen Jesus, all that Jesus has taught over the years now clicks in, and to his death Thomas is an outspoken advocate for his Lord.<br />Church tradition tells us that he preaches in ancient Babylon, near the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, where Iraq is today. He travels to Persia, present-day Iran, and continues to win disciples to the Christian faith.<br />Then he sails south to Malabar on the west coast of India in 52 AD. He preaches, establishes churches, and wins to Christ high caste Brahmins, as well as others. When the Portuguese land in India in the early 1600s, they find a group of Christians there -- the Mar Thoma Church established through Thomas' preaching a millennium and a half before.<br />Finally, Thomas travels to the east coast of India, preaching relentlessly. He is killed near Mylapore about 72 AD, near present-day Madras. Tradition tells us that he is thrown into a pit, then pierced through with a spear thrown by a Brahmin.<br />He who had so fervently proclaimed his unbelief carried the Christian message of love and forgiveness to the ends of the earth in his generation.<br />The Doubter Speaks Today<br />Thomas would speak to doubters today, to those of us who have seen our hopes and dreams destroyed. Doubting Thomas would tell his story of how Jesus' life had intercepted his own. He would tell us of his fears and his doubts. And then, with a radiant, joyful face, St. Thomas, Apostle to India, would recount his joy at seeing and knowing the risen Jesus himself. "My Lord and my God!" he would say. "My Lord and my God!"<br /><br /><br />Doubting Thomas - What can I learn from him? <br /><br />Doubting Thomas was one of the 12 disciples in the Bible. Another name for Thomas was Didymus, which comes from the Hebrew and Greek words both meaning 'the twin.' He wasn't one of the more well known disciples, but he was popular enough to earn the nickname "Doubting Thomas." He was given this label because he simply did not believe that Jesus had risen from the dead. I too have been a 'Doubting Thomas.' But the experience made me a better person and made my faith so much more stronger. <br /><br />Jesus appears to some of the disciples, but Thomas was not with them the first time. John 20:25 says, "So the other disciples told him, 'We have seen the Lord!' But he [Thomas] said to them, 'Unless I see the nail marks in his hands and put my finger where the nails were, and put my hand into his side, I will not believe it.'" <br /><br />Eight days later, Jesus appears before His disciples again: "A week later his disciples were in the house again, and Thomas was with them. Though the doors were locked, Jesus came and stood among them and said, 'Peace be with you!' Then he said to Thomas, 'Put your finger here; see my hands. Reach out your hand and put it into my side. Stop doubting and believe.' Thomas said to him, 'My Lord and my God!' Then Jesus told him, 'Because you have seen me, you have believed; blessed are those who have not seen and yet have believed' (John 20:26-29). <br /><br />How truthful all this is. If Thomas hadn't been a doubter, this famous saying may not have been recorded in history. This particular saying has helped me many times in my life. When things have been going badly for me, when I have faced hardships and pain, this saying has given me hope. <br /><br />Even though Thomas earned a negative label, he was not lacking in some very good qualities. He displayed great courage and loyalty. When the other disciples tried to keep Jesus from going to Bethany to raise Lazarus from the dead because of the danger from those in the area who had just earlier tried to stone Him (John 11:8), Thomas said to them, "Let us also go, that we may die with Him" (John 11:16). Thomas also asked Him one of the most famous questions. John 14:5-6 says, "Thomas said to him, 'Lord, we don't know where you are going, so how can we know the way?' Jesus answered, 'I am the way and the truth and the life. No one comes to the Father except through me.'" <br /><br />I think I have behaved similar to Thomas at times. I have gone through stages in my life when I questioned God. When I was in college I remember wondering how religion and science could agree. I had many questions and doubts at this time and could have been called a "Doubting Thomas." Jesus didn't have to appear to me and show me His wound, however. But He has showed Himself to me in many other ways. <br /><br />Jesus has answered many prayers for me, maybe not in any miraculous way, but He has made me very much aware that He does exist. I find Jesus in my every day walk through life. Sometimes I see His humility on a street corner in the shape of a homeless man. Sometimes I see Him walking with me in my garden, pointing out the first blossoms of spring or the pretty fall colors of a red maple. I see Jesus' love in the hug my grandson gives me and when he says, "Grandma, I love you." I see Jesus in the pink of a sunset and the beautiful colors of a stained glass window. Thank goodness I haven't been a "Doubting Thomas" for some time now. I stay close to God in my daily prayers, in my mission work, and in studying the Bible. Now days I walk with Jesus everyday, that way I won't get lost and hopefully be a "Doubting Thomas" again.Duke Eversmeyerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12979421184987312497noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7936381627778855349.post-31869158747334799472007-10-15T16:48:00.000-07:002007-10-15T16:50:54.729-07:00Lesson 7 Lazarus, Mary & MarthaSt. Lazarus of Bethany<br />Reputed first Bishop of Marseilles, died in the second half of the first century. <br />According to a tradition, or rather a series of traditions combined at different epochs, the members of the family at Bethany, the friends of Christ, together with some holy women and others of His disciples, were put out to sea by the Jews hostile to Christianity in a vessel without sails, oars, or helm, and after a miraculous voyage landed in Provence at a place called today the Saintes-Maries. It is related that they separated there to go and preach the Gospel in different parts of the southeast of Gaul. Lazarus, of whom alone we have to treat here, went to Marseilles, and, having converted a number of its inhabitants to Christianity, became their first pastor. During the first persecution under Nero he hid himself in a crypt, over which the celebrated Abbey of St.-Victor was constructed in the fifth century. In this same crypt he was interred, when he shed his blood for the faith. During the new persecution of Domitian he was cast into prison and beheaded in a spot which is believed to be identical with a cave beneath the prison Saint-Lazare. His body was later translated to Autun, and buried in the cathedral of that town. But the inhabitants of Marseilles claim to be in possession of his head which they still venerate. <br />Like the other legends concerning the saints of the Palestinian group, this tradition, which was believed for several centuries and which still finds some advocates, has no solid foundation. It is in a writing, contained in an eleventh century manuscript, with some other documents relating to St. Magdalen of Vézelay, that we first read of Lazarus in connection with the voyage that brought Magdalen to Gaul. Before the middle of the eleventh century there does not seem to be the slightest trace of the tradition according to which the Palestinian saints came to Provence. At the beginning of the twelfth century, perhaps through a confusion of names, it was believed at Autun that the tomb of St. Lazarus was to be found in the cathedral dedicated to St. Nazarius. A search was made and remains were discovered, which were solemnly translated and were considered to be those of him whom Christ raised from the dead, but it was not thought necessary to inquire why they should be found in France. <br />The question, however, deserved to be examined with care, seeing that, according to a tradition of the Greek Church, the body of St. Lazarus had been brought to Constantinople, just as all the other saints of the Palestinian group were said to have died in the Orient, and to have been buried, translated, and honoured there. It is only in the thirteenth century that the belief that Lazarus had come to Gaul with his two sisters and had been Bishop of Marseilles spread in Provence. It is true that a letter is cited (its origin is uncertain), written in 1040 by Pope Benedict IX on the occasion of the consecration of the new church of St.-Victor in which Lazarus is mentioned. But in this text the pope speaks only of relics of St. Lazarus, merely calling him the saint who was raised again to life. He does not speak of him as having lived in Provence, or as having been Bishop of Marseilles. <br />The most ancient Provençal text alluding to the episcopacy of St. Lazarus is a passage in the "Otia imperialia" of Gervase of Tillbury (1212). Thus the belief in his Provençal apostolate is of very late date, and its supporters must produce more ancient and reliable documentary evidence. In the crypt of St.-Victor at Marseilles an epitaph of the of the fifth century has been discovered, which informs us that a bishop named Lazarus was buried there. In the opinion of the most competent archæologists, however, this personage is Lazarus, Bishop of Aix, who was consecrated at Marseilles about 407, and who, having had to abandon his see in 411, passed some time in Palestine, whence he returned to end his days in Marseilles. It is more than likely that it is the name of this bishop and his return from Palestine, that gave rise to the legend of the coming of the Biblical Lazarus to Provence, and his apostolate in the city of Marseilles. <br />The miracle of Lazarus<br /> <br /><br />The Raising of Lazarus (1967-69) by Ivor Williams<br />In the Gospel of John (John 11:1) Lazarus, also called Lazarus of Bethany or Lazarus of the Four Days was a man who lived in the town of Bethany ("Lazarus from Bethany, the village of Mary and her sister Martha", John 11:1). The sisters are immediately identified: "Mary was the one who had anointed the Lord with perfumed oil and dried his feet with her hair; it was her brother Lazarus who was ill." So the sisters sent word to Jesus that the one he loved was ill. Jesus tarried where he was, and when he arrived, he found that Lazarus had already been in the tomb for four days, and Martha reproached him. (Jesus had only delayed his travel by two days, implying that even if he had set out immediately, Lazarus would have died.) When Jesus assured her that Lazarus would rise, she took his meaning for the resurrection on Judgment Day, to which he replied, "I am the resurrection, and the life: he that believeth in me, though he were dead, yet shall he live: And whosoever liveth and believeth in me shall never die" (John 11:25–26 KJV). In the presence of a crowd of Jewish mourners, Jesus had the stone rolled away from the tomb and bade Lazarus to come out, and so he did, still wrapped in his grave-cloths. Jesus then called for his followers (friends and family alike) to remove the grave-cloths. The narrator claims many other Jews were convinced of Jesus' divinity after visiting Lazarus, but says no more of the individual. The miracle, the longest coherent narrative in John aside from the Passion, is the climax of John's "signs". It explains the crowds seeking Jesus on Palm Sunday, and leads directly to the decision of Caiaphas and the Sanhedrin to kill Jesus.<br />The developed Lazarus legend<br />Lazarus the beggar and Lazarus the resurrected were combined in Romanesque iconography carved on portals in Burgundy and Provence.[6]<br />According to Christian tradition recorded in the 13th century Golden Legend, Lazarus was the brother of Martha and Mary Magdalene, a Pharisee, but because of the rumoured plots fled for his life to Cyprus. There he later became the first bishop of Larnaka/Kittim, appointed directly by Paul and Barnabas, and lived another thirty years. Further establishing the apostolic nature of Lazarus' appointment was the story that the bishop's pallium was presented to Lazarus by the Virgin Mary, who had woven it herself. Such apostolic connections were central to the claims to autocephaly made by the bishops of Kittim—subject to the patriarch of Jerusalem—during the period 325–413. The church of Kittim was declared (or confirmed) self-governing in 413. Stories[citation needed] say that he would always include something sweet in every meal. That was when he observed someone stealing a clay pot, causing him to smile and say with a laugh, "clay stealing clay".<br />In the West, an alternative medieval tradition sent Mary, Martha, and Lazarus to Gaul after the Crucifixion. Provencal tradition, in particular, held Lazarus as the first bishop of Marseille, while Martha purportedly went on to tame a terrible beast in nearby Tarascon. Pilgrims visited their tombs at the abbey of Vézelay in Burgundy. In the Abbey of the Trinity at Vendôme, a phylactery was said to contain a tear shed by Jesus at the tomb of Lazarus. The cathedral of Autun, not far away, is dedicated to Lazarus as Saint Lazare.<br />In the section In paradisum, which often appears embedded in the Requiem, the deceased is wished to Paradise—In paradisum deducant te Angeli— with Lazarus, who once was poor (cum Lazaro quondam paupere); the text reminds us how often the Lazarus of John, who possessed a rock-cut tomb and was resurrected, has been conflated with the beggar Lazarus of Luke.<br />The Legenda Aurea records the grand lifestyle imagined for Lazarus and his sisters in the 14th century:<br />Mary Magdalene had her surname of Magdalo, a castle, and was born of right noble lineage and parents, which were descended of the lineage of kings. And her father was named Cyrus, and her mother Eucharis. She with her brother Lazarus, and her sister Martha, possessed the castle of Magdalo, which is two miles from Nazareth, and Bethany, the castle which is nigh to Jerusalem, and also a great part of Jerusalem, which, all these things they departed among them. In such wise that Mary had the castle Magdalo, whereof she had her name Magdalene. And Lazarus had the part of the city of Jerusalem, and Martha had to her part Bethany. And when Mary gave herself to all delights of the body, and Lazarus entended all to knighthood, Martha, which was wise, governed nobly her brother's part and also her sister's, and also her own, and administered to knights, and her servants, and to poor men, such necessities as they needed. Nevertheless, after the ascension of our Lord, they sold all these things. (Legenda Aurea, Book iv, "Of Mary Magdalene")<br />Tombs of Lazarus<br />The first tomb in Bethany is a place of pilgrimage today. Lazarus's second tomb in Cyprus is the site of the Byzantine church, the most notable feature of ancient Kittim (now Larnaka). The discovery and transfer of his relics from Cyprus to Constantinople in 898 is remembered each year on October 17, apostrophized by Arethas, bishop of Caesarea; however, on November 2, 1972, human remains in a marble sarcophagus under the altar were discovered during renovation works in the church at Larnaka, and were identified with part of the saint's relics.<br />The relics from Constantinople were transferred to France in 1204 as part of the booty of war from the Fourth Crusade.<br />Main article: Order of Saint Lazarus<br />. <br />The Military and Hospitaller Order of Saint Lazarus of Jerusalem is a religious/military order, purportedly dating back to the First Crusade. The Order is run by two distinct channels of authority, referred to as the Malta Obedience and the Paris Obedience.<br />Liturgical references<br />Lazarus is honored as a saint by those Christian churches which keep the commemoration of saints, although on different days, according to local traditions.<br />In the Eastern Orthodox Church as well as the Byzantine Catholic Church, the day before Palm Sunday is celebrated as Lazarus Saturday. This day, together with Palm Sunday, hold a unique position in the church year, as days of joy and triumph between the penitence of Great Lent and the mourning of Holy Week.[7] During the preceding week, the hymns in the Lenten Triodion track the sickness and then the death of Lazarus, and Christ's journey from beyond Jordan to Bethany. The scripture readings and hymns for Lazarus Saturday focus on the resurrection of Lazarus as a foreshadowing of the Resurrection of Christ, and a promise of the General Resurrection. The Gospel narrative is interpreted in the hymns as illustrating the two natures of Christ: his humanity in asking, "Where have ye laid him?" (John 11:34), and his divinity by commanding Lazarus to come forth from the dead (John 11:43). Many of the Resurectional hymns of the normal Sunday service, which are omitted on Palm Sunday, are chanted on Lazaurs Saturday. During the Divine Liturgy, the Baptismal Hymn, "As many as have been baptized into Christ have put on Christ" (Romans 6:3), is sung in place of the Trisagion. Although the forty days of Great Lent end on the day before Lazarus Saturday, the day is still observed as a fast; however, it is somewhat mitigated. In Russia, it is traditional to eat caviar on Lazarus Saturday.<br />In the Roman Catholic Church Saint Lazarus' memorial is on June 21. In Cuba a major festival is dedicated to San Lázaro (synchronised with Babalu Ayé in Santería), but on December 17. He is commemorated in the Calendar of Saints of the Lutheran Church on July 29 together with Mary and Martha.<br />Lazarus is also a representation of Omulu/Abaluaye in Brazilian Umbanda.<br />In Christian funerals the idea of the deceased being raised by the Lord as Lazarus was raised is often expressed in prayer.<br />In modern culture<br />Well-known as an established tale, Lazarus has appeared countless times in music, writing and art. A few example citations of the tale:<br />· Among the painted depictions of Lazarus is the work Lazarus Breaking His Fast by Walter Sickert, which hangs in the Scottish National Gallery of Modern Art in Edinburgh and "Gare Saint-Lazare" by Claude Monet, after a train station in Paris by the same name. <br />· The bands The Boo Radleys, Chimaira, Fozzy, moe., Placebo, and Porcupine Tree have each composed a song titled "Lazarus". <br />· Other songs that refer to Lazarus include "Our Friend Lazarus Sleeps" by I Am Ghost, "Sleepwalk Capsules" by At the Drive-In, "Ali in the Jungle" by The Hours, "Lazarus Man" by Terry Callier, "Long Snake Moan" by PJ Harvey, "Lazarus (In The Wilderness) by Funeral for a Friend, "Death March" by Jedi Mind Tricks, "The Lazarus Heart" by Sting and "Ghost" by Clutch. <br />· Dave Swarbrick has also recently formed a band called Lazarus with Maartin Allcock and Kevin Dempsey. <br />· Lazarus is mentioned in several notable works of literature, including Crime and Punishment by Fyodor Dostoevsky, "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock" by T. S. Eliot, A Canticle for Leibowitz by Walter M. Miller, Jr., Moby-Dick by Herman Melville, A Separate Peace by John Knowles, The Famished Road by Ben Okri, "[Jude the Obscure]" by Thomas Hardy, and "Lazarus" by Leonid Andreyev. <br />· Several novels of Robert A. Heinlein involve Lazarus Long, a name taken by Woodrow Wilson Smith, a character who lives over 2000 years. <br />· Sylvia Plath wrote a poem called "Lady Lazarus". <br />· On film, the name "Lazarus" is used in the movies Mr. Stitch, Casper, Black Snake Moan and Slam. <br />· In computer software, Lazarus is referenced by the 1995 computer game Diablo, the DiskDoctor utility in the Commodore Amiga Old File System, and the video games Grand Theft Auto: Liberty City Stories, Grand Theft Auto: Vice City Stories and BioShock. <br />· On television, "Lazarus" appears in The X-Files ("Lazarus"), Stargate SG-1 ("Cold Lazarus"), Doctor Who ("The Lazarus Experiment"), and Star Trek episodes "The Alternative Factor" and "Requiem for Methuselah". <br />· In the Batman comic books, villain Ra's al Ghul renegerates his body in a Lazarus pit. <br />Martha (Judæo-Aramaic מַרְתָּא Martâ "The lady", French Sainte Marthe) is a figure mentioned only in the Bible. No other historical detail about her is known. According to the gospel of John, she was the sister of Lazarus and Mary, and she witnessed her brother's resurrection. In the canonical Scripture, Martha is mentioned only in Luke 10:38-42; and John 11, 12, sqq. The Aramaic form occurs in a Nabatean inscription found at Puteoli, and now in the Naples Museum; it is dated AD. 5 (Corpus Inscr. Semit., 158); also in a Palmyrene inscription, where the Greek translation has the form Marthein, AD. 179. She is a character in the gnostic Pistis Sophia. She is mentioned in the gospel<br />Biblical Martha<br />Mary, Martha, and Lazarus are depicted by John as living at Bethany, but Luke would seem to imply that they were, at least at one time, living in Galilee; he does not mention the name of the town, but it may have been Magdala, and we should thus, supposing Mary of Bethany and Mary Magdalene to be the same person, understand the appellative "Magdalene". The words of John (11:1) seem to imply a change of residence for the family. It is possible, too, that Luke has displaced the incident referred to in Chapter 10. The likeness between the pictures of Martha presented by Luke and John is very remarkable. The familiar intercourse between the Saviour of the world and the humble family which Luke depicts is dwelt on by John when he tells us that "Jesus loved Martha, and her sister Mary, and Lazarus" (11:5). Again the picture of Martha's anxiety (John 11:20-21, 39) accords with the picture of her who was "busy about much serving" (Luke 10:40); so also in John 12:2: "They made him a supper there: and Martha served." But St. John has given us a glimpse of the other and deeper side of her character when he depicts her growing faith in Christ's Divinity (11:20-27), a faith which was the occasion of the words: "I am the resurrection and the life." The Evangelist has beautifully indicated the change that came over Martha after that interview: "When she had said these things, she went and called her sister Mary secretly, saying: The Master is come, and calleth for thee."<br />Difficulties have been raised about the last supper at Bethania. John seems to put it six days before the Pasch, and, so some conclude, in the house of Martha; while the Synoptic account puts it two days before the Pasch, and in the house of Simon the Leper. We need not try to avoid this difficulty by asserting that there were two suppers; for John does not say that the supper took place six days before, but only that Christ arrived in Bethania six days before the Pasch; nor does he say that it was in the house of Martha. We are surely justified in arguing that, since Matthew and Mark place the scene in the house of Simon, St. John must be understood to say the same; it remains to be proved that Martha could not "serve" in Simon's house.<br /> <br /><br />St Martha's Collegiate Church in Tarascon<br />Expansion of the Martha tradition<br />According to Eastern Orthodox tradition, Martha went to Cyprus with her siblings Mary and Lazarus, where Lazarus was appointed the first bishop of Kition. All three died in Cyprus.<br />According to one legend, Martha left Judea after Jesus's death, around AD 48, and went to Provence with her sister Mary (potentially Mary Magdalene) and her brother Lazarus. Martha first settled in Avignon (now in France), then went to Tarascon, where a monster, the Tarasque, was a constant threat to the population. Martha managed to tame the monster and eventually died in Tarascon, where she was buried. Her tomb is located in the crypt of the local Collegiate Church.<br />Memory<br />Martha is a Christian saint in the Eastern Orthodox churches and the Lutheran Church. Her feast day is June 4th and July 29 in the Roman Catholic tradition. Among the Orthodox, she is commemorated collectively with the other Myrrh-bearing Women on the Sunday of the Myrrhbearers (the Third Sunday of Pascha—i.e., the second Sunday after Easter). She also figures in the commemorations of Lazarus Saturday (the day before Palm Sunday).Duke Eversmeyerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12979421184987312497noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7936381627778855349.post-48394435463793942602007-10-03T20:30:00.000-07:002007-10-03T20:33:20.104-07:00Lesson 6 The Sons of Zebedee John & JamesSt. John<br /><br />I. NEW TESTAMENT ACCOUNTS<br />John was the son of Zebedee and Salome, and the brother of James the Greater. In the Gospels the two brothers are often called after their father "the sons of Zebedee" and received from Christ the honourable title of Boanerges, i.e. "sons of thunder" (Mark 3:17). Originally they were fishermen and fished with their father in the Lake of Genesareth. According to the usual and entirely probable explanation they became, however, for a time disciples of John the Baptist, and were called by Christ from the circle of John's followers, together with Peter and Andrew, to become His disciples (John 1:35-42). The first disciples returned with their new Master from the Jordan to Galilee and apparently both John and the others remained for some time with Jesus (cf. John ii, 12, 22; iv, 2, 8, 27 sqq.). Yet after the second return from Judea, John and his companions went back again to their trade of fishing until he and they were called by Christ to definitive discipleship (Matthew 4:18-22; Mark 1:16-20). In the lists of the Apostles John has the second place (Acts 1:13), the third (Mark 3:17), and the fourth (Matthew 10:3; Luke 6:14), yet always after James with the exception of a few passages (Luke 8:51; 9:28 in the Greek text; Acts 1:13). <br />From James being thus placed first, the conclusion is drawn that John was the younger of the two brothers. In any case John had a prominent position in the Apostolic body. Peter, James, and he were the only witnesses of the raising of Jairus's daughter (Mark 5:37), of the Transfiguration (Matthew 17:1), and of the Agony in Gethsemani (Matthew 26:37). Only he and Peter were sent into the city to make the preparation for the Last Supper (Luke 22:8). At the Supper itself his place was next to Christ on Whose breast he leaned (John 13:23, 25). According to the general interpretation John was also that "other disciple" who with Peter followed Christ after the arrest into the palace of the high-priest (John 18:15). John alone remained near his beloved Master at the foot of the Cross on Calvary with the Mother of Jesus and the pious women, and took the desolate Mother into his care as the last legacy of Christ (John 19:25-27). After the Resurrection John with Peter was the first of the disciples to hasten to the grave and he was the first to believe that Christ had truly risen (John 20:2-10). When later Christ appeared at the Lake of Genesareth John was also the first of the seven disciples present who recognized his Master standing on the shore (John 21:7). The Fourth Evangelist has shown us most clearly how close the relationship was in which he always stood to his Lord and Master by the title with which he is accustomed to indicate himself without giving his name: "the disciple whom Jesus loved". After Christ's Ascension and the Descent of the Holy Spirit, John took, together with Peter, a prominent part in the founding and guidance of the Church. We see him in the company of Peter at the healing of the lame man in the Temple (Acts 3:1 sqq.). With Peter he is also thrown into prison (Acts 4:3). Again, we find him with the prince of the Apostles visiting the newly converted in Samaria (Acts 8:14). <br />We have no positive information concerning the duration of this activity in Palestine. Apparently John in common with the other Apostles remained some twelve years in this first field of labour, until the persecution of Herod Agrippa I led to the scattering of the Apostles through the various provinces of the Roman Empire (cf. Acts 12:1-17). Notwithstanding the opinion to the contrary of many writers, it does not appear improbable that John then went for the first time to Asia Minor and exercised his Apostolic office in various provinces there. In any case a Christian community was already in existence at Ephesus before Paul's first labours there (cf. "the brethren", Acts 18:27, in addition to Priscilla and Aquila), and it is easy to connect a sojourn of John in these provinces with the fact that the Holy Ghost did not permit the Apostle Paul on his second missionary journey to proclaim the Gospel in Asia, Mysia, and Bithynia (Acts 16:6 sq.). There is just as little against such an acceptation in the later account in Acts of St. Paul's third missionary journey. But in any case such a sojourn by John in Asia in this first period was neither long nor uninterrupted. He returned with the other disciples to Jerusalem for the Apostolic Council (about A.D. 51). St. Paul in opposing his enemies in Galatia names John explicitly along with Peter and James the Less as a "pillar of the Church", and refers to the recognition which his Apostolic preaching of a Gospel free from the law received from these three, the most prominent men of the old Mother-Church at Jerusalem (Galatians 2:9). When Paul came again to Jerusalem after the second and after the third journey (Acts 18:22; 21:17 sq.) he seems no longer to have met John there. Some wish to draw the conclusion from this that John left Palestine between the years 52 and 55. <br />Of the other New-Testament writings, it is only from the three Epistles of John and the Apocalypse that anything further is learned concerning the person of the Apostle. We may be permitted here to take as proven the unity of the author of these three writings handed down under the name of John and his identity with the Evangelist. Both the Epistles and the Apocalypse, however, presuppose that their author John belonged to the multitude of personal eyewitnesses of the life and work of Christ (cf. especially 1 John 1:1-5; 4:14), that he had lived for a long time in Asia Minor, was thoroughly acquainted with the conditions existing in the various Christian communities there, and that he had a position of authority recognized by all Christian communities as leader of this part of the Church. Moreover, the Apocalypse tells us that its author was on the island of Patmos "for the word of God and for the testimony of Jesus", when he was honoured with the heavenly Revelation contained in the Apocalypse (Revelation 1:9). <br />II. THE ALLEGED PRESBYTER JOHN<br />The author of the Second and Third Epistles of John designates himself in the superscription of each by the name (ho presbyteros), "the ancient", "the old". Papias, Bishop of Hierapolis, also uses the same name to designate the "Presbyter John" as in addition to Aristion, his particular authority, directly after he has named the presbyters Andrew, Peter, Philip, Thomas, James, John, and Matthew (in Eusebius, "Hist. eccl.", III, xxxix, 4). Eusebius was the first to draw, on account of these words of Papias, the distinction between a Presbyter John and the Apostle John, and this distinction was also spread in Western Europe by St. Jerome on the authority of Eusebius. The opinion of Eusebius has been frequently revived by modern writers, chiefly to support the denial of the Apostolic origin of the Fourth Gospel. The distinction, however, has no historical basis. First, the testimony of Eusebius in this matter is not worthy of belief. He contradicts himself, as in his "Chronicle" he expressly calls the Apostle John the teacher of Papias ("ad annum Abrah 2114"), as does Jerome also in Ep. lxxv, "Ad Theodoram", iii, and in "De viris illustribus", xviii. Eusebius was also influenced by his erroneous doctrinal opinions as he denied the Apostolic origin of the Apocalypse and ascribed this writing to an author differing from St. John but of the same name. St. Irenæus also positively designates the Apostle and Evangelist John as the teacher of Papias, and neither he nor any other writer before Eusebius had any idea of a second John in Asia (Adv. haer., V, xxxiii, 4). In what Papias himself says the connection plainly shows that in this passage by the word presbyters only Apostles can be understood. If John is mentioned twice the explanation lies in the peculiar relationship in which Papias stood to this, his most eminent teacher. By inquiring of others he had learned some things indirectly from John, just as he had from the other Apostles referred to. In addition he had received information concerning the teachings and acts of Jesus directly, without the intervention of others, from the still living "Presbyter John", as he also had from Aristion. Thus the teaching of Papias casts absolutely no doubt upon what the New-Testament writings presuppose and expressly mention concerning the residence of the Evangelist John in Asia. <br />III. THE LATER ACCOUNTS OF JOHN<br />The Christian writers of the second and third centuries testify to us as a tradition universally recognized and doubted by no one that the Apostle and Evangelist John lived in Asia Minor in the last decades of the first century and from Ephesus had guided the Churches of that province. In his "Dialogue with Tryphon" (Chapter 81) St. Justin Martyr refers to "John, one of the Apostles of Christ" as a witness who had lived "with us", that is, at Ephesus. St. Irenæus speaks in very many places of the Apostle John and his residence in Asia and expressly declares that he wrote his Gospel at Ephesus (Adv. haer., III, i, 1), and that he had lived there until the reign of Trajan (loc. cit., II, xxii, 5). With Eusebius (Hist. eccl., III, xiii, 1) and others we are obliged to place the Apostle's banishment to Patmos in the reign of the Emperor Domitian (81-96). Previous to this, according to Tertullian's testimony (De praescript., xxxvi), John had been thrown into a cauldron of boiling oil before the Porta Latina at Rome without suffering injury. After Domitian's death the Apostle returned to Ephesus during the reign of Trajan, and at Ephesus he died about A.D. 100 at a great age. Tradition reports many beautiful traits of the last years of his life: that he refused to remain under the same roof with Cerinthus (Irenaeus "Ad. haer.", III, iii, 4); his touching anxiety about a youth who had become a robber (Clemens Alex., "Quis dives salvetur", xiii); his constantly repeated words of exhortation at the end of his life, "Little children, love one another" (Jerome, "Comm. in ep. ad. Gal.", vi, 10). On the other hand the stories told in the apocryphal Acts of John, which appeared as early as the second century, are unhistorical invention. <br />IV. FEASTS OF ST. JOHN<br />St. John is commemorated on 27 December, which he originally shared with St. James the Greater. At Rome the feast was reserved to St. John alone at an early date, though both names are found in the Carthage Calendar, the Hieronymian Martyrology, and the Gallican liturgical books. The "departure" or "assumption" of the Apostle is noted in the Menology of Constantinople and the Calendar of Naples (26 September), which seems to have been regarded as the date of his death. The feast of St. John before the Latin Gate, supposed to commemorate the dedication of the church near the Porta Latina, is first mentioned in the Sacramentary of Adrian I (772-95). <br />V. ST. JOHN IN CHRISTIAN ART<br />Early Christian art usually represents St. John with an eagle, symbolizing the heights to which he rises in the first chapter of his Gospel. The chalice as symbolic of St. John, which, according to some authorities, was not adopted until the thirteenth century, is sometimes interpreted with reference to the Last Supper, again as connected with the legend according to which St. John was handed a cup of poisoned wine, from which, at his blessing, the poison rose in the shape of a serpent. Perhaps the most natural explanation is to be found in the words of Christ to John and James "My chalice indeed you shall drink" (Matthew 20:23). <br />St. James the Greater<br />(Hebrew Yakob; Septuagint Iakob; N.T. Greek Iakobos; a favourite name among the later Jews). <br />The son of Zebedee and Salome (Cf. Matthew 27:56; Mark 15:40; 16:1). Zahn asserts that Salome was the daughter of a priest. James is styled "the Greater" to distinguish him from the Apostle James "the Less", who was probably shorter of stature. We know nothing of St. James's early life. He was the brother of John, the beloved disciple, and probably the elder of the two. <br />His parents seem to have been people of means as appears from the following facts. <br />· Zebedee was a fisherman of the Lake of Galilee, who probably lived in or near Bethsaida (John 1:44), perhaps in Capharnaum; and had some boatmen or hired men as his usual attendants (Mark 1:20). <br />· Salome was one of the pious women who afterwards followed Christ and "ministered unto him of their substance" (cf. Matthew 27:55, sq.; Mark 15:40; 16:1; Luke 8:2 sq.; 23:55-24:1). <br />· St. John was personally known to the high-priest (John 18:16); and must have had wherewithal to provide for the Mother of Jesus (John 19:27).<br />It is probable, according to Acts 4:13, that John (and consequently his brother James) had not received the technical training of the rabbinical schools; in this sense they were unlearned and without any official position among the Jews. But, according to the social rank of their parents, they must have been men of ordinary education, in the common walks of Jewish life. They had frequent opportunity of coming in contact with Greek life and language, which were already widely spread along the shores of the Galilean Sea. <br />Relation of St. James to Jesus<br />Some authors, comparing John 19:25 with Matthew 28:56 and Mark 15:40, identify, and probably rightly so, Mary the Mother of James the Less and of Joseph in Mark and Matthew with "Mary of Cleophas" in John. As the name of Mary Magdalen occurs in the three lists, they identify further Salome in Mark with "the mother of the sons of Zebedee" in Matthew; finally they identify Salome with "his mother's sister" in John. They suppose, for this last identification, that four women are designated by John 19:25; the Syriac "Peshito" gives the reading: "His mother and his mother's sister, and Mary of Cleophas and Mary Magdalen." If this last supposition is right, Salome was a sister of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and James the Greater and John were first cousins of the Lord; this may explain the discipleship of the two brothers, Salome's request and their own claim to the first position in His kingdom, and His commendation of the Blessed Virgin to her own nephew. But it is doubtful whether the Greek admits of this construction without the addition or the omission of kai (and). Thus the relationship of St. James to Jesus remains doubtful. <br />His life and apostolate<br />The Galilean origin of St. James in some degree explains the energy of temper and the vehemence of character which earned for him and St. John the name of Boanerges, "sons of thunder" (Mark 3:17); the Galilean race was religious, hardy, industrious, brave, and the strongest defender of the Jewish nation. <br />When John the Baptist proclaimed the kingdom of the Messias, St. John became a disciple (John 1:35); he was directed to "the Lamb of God" and afterwards brought his brother James to the Messias; the obvious meaning of John 1:41, is that St. Andrew finds his brother (St. Peter) first and that afterwards St. John (who does not name himself, according to his habitual and characteristic reserve and silence about himself) finds his brother (St. James). The call of St. James to the discipleship of the Messias is reported in a parallel or identical narration by Matthew 4:18-22; Mark 1:19 sq.; and Luke 5:1-11. The two sons of Zebedee, as well as Simon (Peter) and his brother Andrew with whom they were in partnership (Luke 5:10), were called by the Lord upon the Sea of Galilee, where all four with Zebedee and his hired servants were engaged in their ordinary occupation of fishing. The sons of Zebedee "forthwith left their nets and father, and followed him" (Matthew 4:22), and became "fishers of men". <br />St. James was afterwards with the other eleven called to the Apostleship (Matthew 10:1-4; Mark 3:13-19; Luke 6:12-16; Acts 1:13). In all four lists the names of Peter and Andrew, James and John form the first group, a prominent and chosen group (cf. Mark 13:3); especially Peter, James, and John. These three Apostles alone were admitted to be present at the miracle of the raising of Jairus's daughter (Mark 5:37; Luke 8:51), at the Transfiguration (Mark 9:1; Matthew 17:1; Luke 9:28), and the Agony in Gethsemani (Matthew 26:37; Mark 14:33). The fact that the name of James occurs always (except in Luke 8:51; 9:28; Acts 1:13 -- Greek Text) before that of his brother seems to imply that James was the elder of the two. It is worthy of notice that James is never mentioned in the Gospel of St. John; this author observes a humble reserve not only with regard to himself, but also about the members of his family. <br />Several incidents scattered through the Synoptics suggest that James and John had that particular character indicated by the name "Boanerges," sons of thunder, given to them by the Lord (Mark 3:17); they were burning and impetuous in their evangelical zeal and severe in temper. The two brothers showed their fiery temperament against "a certain man casting out devils" in the name of the Christ; John, answering, said: "We [James is probably meant] forbade him, because he followeth not with us" (Luke 9:49). When the Samaritans refused to receive Christ, James and John said: "Lord, wilt thou that we command fire to come down from heaven, and consume them?" (Luke 9:54; cf. 9:49). <br />His martyrdom<br />On the last journey to Jerusalem, their mother Salome came to the Lord and said to Him: "Say that these my two sons may sit, the one on thy right hand, and the other on thy left, in thy kingdom" (Matthew 20:21). And the two brothers, still ignorant of the spiritual nature of the Messianic Kingdom, joined with their mother in this eager ambition (Mark 10:37). And on their assertion that they are willing to drink the chalice that He drinks of, and to be baptized with the baptism of His sufferings, Jesus assured them that they will share His sufferings (Mark 5:38-39). <br />James won the crown of martyrdom fourteen years after this prophecy, A.D. 44. Herod Agrippa I, son of Aristobulus and grandson of Herod the Great, reigned at that time as "king" over a wider dominion than that of his grandfather. His great object was to please the Jews in every way, and he showed great regard for the Mosaic Law and Jewish customs. In pursuance of this policy, on the occasion of the Passover of A.D. 44, he perpetrated cruelties upon the Church, whose rapid growth incensed the Jews. The zealous temper of James and his leading part in the Jewish Christian communities probably led Agrippa to choose him as the first victim. "He killed James, the brother of John, with the sword." (Acts 12:1-2). According to a tradition, which, as we learn from Eusebius (Hist. Eccl., II, ix, 2, 3), was received from Clement of Alexandria (in the seventh book of his lost "Hypotyposes"), the accuser who led the Apostle to judgment, moved by his confession, became himself a Christian, and they were beheaded together. As Clement testifies expressly that the account was given him "by those who were before him," this tradition has a better foundation than many other traditions and legends respecting the Apostolic labours and death of St. James, which are related in the Latin "Passio Jacobi Majoris", the Ethiopic "Acts of James", and so on. <br />St. James in Spain<br />The tradition asserting that James the Greater preached the Gospel in Spain, and that his body was translated to Compostela, claims more serious consideration. <br />According to this tradition St. James the Greater, having preached Christianity in Spain, returned to Judea and was put to death by order of Herod; his body was miraculously translated to Iria Flavia in the northwest of Spain, and later to Compostela, which town, especially during the Middle Ages, became one of the most famous places of pilgrimage in the world. The vow of making a pilgrimage to Compostela to honour the sepulchre of St. James is still reserved to the pope, who alone of his own or ordinary right can dispense from it. In the twelfth century was founded the Order of Knights of St. James of Compostela. <br />With regard to the preaching of the Gospel in Spain by St. James the greater, several difficulties have been raised: <br />· St. James suffered martyrdom A.D. 44 (Acts 12:2), and, according to the tradition of the early Church, he had not yet left Jerusalem at this time (cf. Clement of Alexandria, "Strom.", VI; Apollonius, quoted by Eusebius, "Hist. Eccl." VI, xviii). <br />· St. Paul in his Epistle to the Romans (A.D. 58) expressed the intention to visit Spain (Romans 15:24) just after he had mentioned (15:20) that he did not "build upon another man's foundation." <br />· The argument ex silentio: although the tradition that James founded an Apostolic see in Spain was current in the year 700, no certain mention of such tradition is to be found in the genuine writings of early writers nor in the early councils; the first certain mention we find in the ninth century, in Notker, a monk of St. Gall (Martyrol., 25 July), Walafried Strabo (Poema de XII Apost.), and others. <br />· The tradition was not unanimously admitted afterwards, while numerous scholars reject it. The Bollandists however defended it (see Acta Sanctorum, July, VI and VII, where other sources are given). <br />The authenticity of the sacred relic of Compostela has been questioned and is still doubted. Even if St. James the Greater did not preach the Christian religion in Spain, his body may have been brought to Compostela, and this was already the opinion of Notker. According to another tradition, the relics of the Apostle are kept in the church of St-Saturnin at Toulouse (France), but it is not improbable that such sacred relics should have been divided between two churches. A strong argument in favour of the authenticity of the sacred relics of Compostela is the Bull of Leo XIII, "OmnDuke Eversmeyerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12979421184987312497noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7936381627778855349.post-67220317976877378602007-09-26T18:13:00.000-07:002008-12-09T04:33:13.556-08:00Lesson 5 St. Peter<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh9ADocVBb1EBzlvUqz17ZQ4gmVlQFEZIujhwIA_vdRyKB3cjMPzuRiGnDqVvnzvuvIFpzwcJrHSNcLKTlByXmiHHgkIPV7DX72ymH1wbigk2CRnD221wGN-vHiJXtvRb1u_Lx5WMu0pvFC/s1600-h/St.+Peter.jpg"><img style="float:left; margin:0 10px 10px 0;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh9ADocVBb1EBzlvUqz17ZQ4gmVlQFEZIujhwIA_vdRyKB3cjMPzuRiGnDqVvnzvuvIFpzwcJrHSNcLKTlByXmiHHgkIPV7DX72ymH1wbigk2CRnD221wGN-vHiJXtvRb1u_Lx5WMu0pvFC/s400/St.+Peter.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5114937886761818690" /></a><br />ST. PETER<br /><br />I. UNTIL THE ASCENSION OF CHRIST<br />Bethsaida<br />St. Peter's true and original name was Simon, sometimes occurring in the form Symeon. (Acts 15:14; 2 Peter 1:1). He was the son of Jona (Johannes) and was born in Bethsaida (John 1:42, 44), a town on Lake Genesareth, the position of which cannot be established with certainty, although it is usually sought at the northern end of the lake. The Apostle Andrew was his brother, and the Apostle Philip came from the same town. <br />Capharnaum<br />Simon settled in Capharnaum, where he was living with his mother-in-law in his own house (Matthew 8:14; Luke 4:38) at the beginning of Christ's public ministry (about A.D. 26-28). Simon was thus married, and, according to Clement of Alexandria (Stromata, III, vi, ed. Dindorf, II, 276), had children. The same writer relates the tradition that Peter's wife suffered martyrdom (ibid., VII, xi ed. cit., III, 306). Concerning these facts, adopted by Eusebius (Hist. Eccl., III, xxxi) from Clement, the ancient Christian literature which has come down to us is silent. Simon pursued in Capharnaum the profitable occupation of fisherman in Lake Genesareth, possessing his own boat (Luke 5:3). <br />Peter meets Our Lord<br />Like so many of his Jewish contemporaries, he was attracted by the Baptist's preaching of penance and was, with his brother Andrew, among John's associates in Bethania on the eastern bank of the Jordan. When, after the High Council had sent envoys for the second time to the Baptist, the latter pointed to Jesus who was passing, saying, "Behold the Lamb of God", Andrew and another disciple followed the Saviour to his residence and remained with Him one day. <br />Later, meeting his brother Simon, Andrew said "We have found the Messias", and brought him to Jesus, who, looking upon him, said: "Thou art Simon the son of Jona: thou shalt be called Cephas, which is interpreted Peter". Already, at this first meeting, the Saviour foretold the change of Simon's name to Cephas (Kephas; Aramaic Kipha, rock), which is translated Petros (Latin, Petrus) a proof that Christ had already special views with regard to Simon. Later, probably at the time of his definitive call to the Apostolate with the eleven other Apostles, Jesus actually gave Simon the name of Cephas (Petrus), after which he was usually called Peter, especially by Christ on the solemn occasion after Peter's profession of faith (Matthew 16:18; cf. below). The Evangelists often combine the two names, while St. Paul uses the name Cephas. <br />Peter becomes a disciple<br />After the first meeting Peter with the other early disciples remained with Jesus for some time, accompanying Him to Galilee (Marriage at Cana), Judaea, and Jerusalem, and through Samaria back to Galilee (John 2-4). Here Peter resumed his occupation of fisherman for a short time, but soon received the definitive call of the Saviour to become one of His permanent disciples. Peter and Andrew were engaged at their calling when Jesus met and addressed them: "Come ye after me, and I will make you to be fishers of men". On the same occasion the sons of Zebedee were called (Matthew 4:18-22; Mark 1:16-20; Luke 5:1-11; it is here assumed that Luke refers to the same occasion as the other Evangelists). Thenceforth Peter remained always in the immediate neighbourhood of Our Lord. After preaching the Sermon on the Mount and curing the son of the centurion in Capharnaum, Jesus came to Peter's house and cured his wife's mother, who was sick of a fever (Matthew 8:14-15; Mark 1:29-31). A little later Christ chose His Twelve Apostles as His constant associates in preaching the kingdom of God. <br />Growing prominence among the Twelve<br />Among the Twelve Peter soon became conspicuous. Though of irresolute character, he clings with the greatest fidelity, firmness of faith, and inward love to the Saviour; rash alike in word and act, he is full of zeal and enthusiasm, though momentarily easily accessible to external influences and intimidated by difficulties. The more prominent the Apostles become in the Evangelical narrative, the more conspicuous does Peter appear as the first among them. In the list of the Twelve on the occasion of their solemn call to the Apostolate, not only does Peter stand always at their head, but the surname Petrus given him by Christ is especially emphasized (Matthew 10:2): "Duodecim autem Apostolorum nomina haec: Primus Simon qui dicitur Petrus. . ."; Mark 3:14-16: "Et fecit ut essent duodecim cum illo, et ut mitteret eos praedicare . . . et imposuit Simoni nomen Petrus"; Luke 6:13-14: "Et cum dies factus esset, vocavit discipulos suos, et elegit duodecim ex ipsis (quos et Apostolos nominavit): Simonem, quem cognominavit Petrum . . ." On various occasions Peter speaks in the name of the other Apostles (Matthew 15:15; 19:27; Luke 12:41, etc.). When Christ's words are addressed to all the Apostles, Peter answers in their name (e.g., Matthew 16:16). Frequently the Saviour turns specially to Peter (Matthew 26:40; Luke 22:31, etc.). <br />Very characteristic is the expression of true fidelity to Jesus, which Peter addressed to Him in the name of the other Apostles. Christ, after He had spoken of the mystery of the reception of His Body and Blood (John 6:22 sqq.) and many of His disciples had left Him, asked the Twelve if they too should leave Him; Peter's answer comes immediately: "Lord to whom shall we go? thou hast the words of eternal life. And we have believed and have known, that thou art the Holy One of God" (Vulgate "thou art the Christ, the Son of God"). Christ Himself unmistakably accords Peter a special precedence and the first place among the Apostles, and designates him for such on various occasions. Peter was one of the three Apostles (with James and John) who were with Christ on certain special occasions the raising of the daughter of Jairus from the dead (Mark 5:37; Luke 8:51); the Transfiguration of Christ (Matthew 17:1; Mark 9:1; Luke 9:28), the Agony in the Garden of Gethsemani (Matthew 26:37; Mark 14:33). On several occasions also Christ favoured him above all the others; He enters Peter's boat on Lake Genesareth to preach to the multitude on the shore (Luke 5:3); when He was miraculously walking upon the waters, He called Peter to come to Him across the lake (Matthew 14:28 sqq.); He sent him to the lake to catch the fish in whose mouth Peter found the stater to pay as tribute (Matthew 17:24 sqq.). <br />Peter becomes Head of the Apostles<br />In especially solemn fashion Christ accentuated Peter's precedence among the Apostles, when, after Peter had recognized Him as the Messias, He promised that he would be head of His flock. Jesus was then dwelling with His Apostles in the vicinity of Caesarea Philippi, engaged on His work of salvation. As Christ's coming agreed so little in power and glory with the expectations of the Messias, many different views concerning Him were current. While journeying along with His Apostles, Jesus asks them: "Whom do men say that the Son of man is?" The Apostles answered: "Some John the Baptist, and other some Elias, and others Jeremias, or one of the prophets". Jesus said to them: "But whom do you say that I am?" Simon said: "Thou art Christ, the Son of the living God". And Jesus answering said to him: "Blessed art thou, Simon Bar-Jona: because flesh and blood hath not revealed it to thee, but my Father who is in heaven. And I say to thee: That thou art Peter [Kipha, a rock], and upon this rock [Kipha] I will build my church [ekklesian], and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it. And I will give to thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven. And whatsoever thou shalt bind upon earth, it shall be bound also in heaven: and whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth, it shall be loosed also in heaven". Then he commanded his disciples, that they should tell no one that he was Jesus the Christ (Matthew 16:13-20; Mark 8:27-30; Luke 9:18-21). <br />By the word "rock" the Saviour cannot have meant Himself, but only Peter, as is so much more apparent in Aramaic in which the same word (Kipha) is used for "Peter" and "rock". His statement then admits of but one explanation, namely, that He wishes to make Peter the head of the whole community of those who believed in Him as the true Messias; that through this foundation (Peter) the Kingdom of Christ would be unconquerable; that the spiritual guidance of the faithful was placed in the hands of Peter, as the special representative of Christ. This meaning becomes so much the clearer when we remember that the words "bind" and "loose" are not metaphorical, but Jewish juridical terms. It is also clear that the position of Peter among the other Apostles and in the Christian community was the basis for the Kingdom of God on earth, that is, the Church of Christ. Peter was personally installed as Head of the Apostles by Christ Himself. This foundation created for the Church by its Founder could not disappear with the person of Peter, but was intended to continue and did continue (as actual history shows) in the primacy of the Roman Church and its bishops. <br />Entirely inconsistent and in itself untenable is the position of Protestants who (like Schnitzer in recent times) assert that the primacy of the Roman bishops cannot be deduced from the precedence which Peter held among the Apostles. Just as the essential activity of the Twelve Apostles in building up and extending the Church did not entirely disappear with their deaths, so surely did the Apostolic Primacy of Peter not completely vanish. As intended by Christ, it must have continued its existence and development in a form appropriate to the ecclesiastical organism, just as the office of the Apostles continued in an appropriate form. <br />Objections have been raised against the genuineness of the wording of the passage, but the unanimous testimony of the manuscripts, the parallel passages in the other Gospels, and the fixed belief of pre-Constantine literature furnish the surest proofs of the genuineness and untampered state of the text of Matthew (cf. "Stimmen aus MariaLaach", I, 1896,129 sqq.; "Theologie und Glaube", II, 1910, 842 sqq.). <br />His difficulty with Christ's Passion<br />In spite of his firm faith in Jesus, Peter had so far no clear knowledge of the mission and work of the Saviour. The sufferings of Christ especially, as contradictory to his worldly conception of the Messias, were inconceivable to him, and his erroneous conception occasionally elicited a sharp reproof from Jesus (Matthew 16:21-23, Mark 8:31-33). Peter's irresolute character, which continued notwithstanding his enthusiastic fidelity to his Master, was clearly revealed in connection with the Passion of Christ. The Saviour had already told him that Satan had desired him that he might sift him as wheat. But Christ had prayed for him that his faith fail not, and, being once converted, he confirms his brethren (Luke 22:31-32). Peter's assurance that he was ready to accompany his Master to prison and to death, elicited Christ's prediction that Peter should deny Him (Matthew 26:30-35; Mark 14:26-31; Luke 22:31-34; John 13:33-38). <br />When Christ proceeded to wash the feet of His disciples before the Last Supper, and came first to Peter, the latter at first protested, but, on Christ's declaring that otherwise he should have no part with Him, immediately said: "Lord, not only my feet, but also my hands and my head" (John 13:1-10). In the Garden of Gethsemani Peter had to submit to the Saviour's reproach that he had slept like the others, while his Master suffered deadly anguish (Mark 14:37). At the seizing of Jesus, Peter in an outburst of anger wished to defend his Master by force, but was forbidden to do so. He at first took to flight with the other Apostles (John 18:10-11; Matthew 26:56); then turning he followed his captured Lord to the courtyard of the High Priest, and there denied Christ, asserting explicitly and swearing that he knew Him not (Matthew 26:58-75; Mark 14:54-72; Luke 22:54-62; John 18:15-27). This denial was of course due, not to a lapse of interior faith in Christ, but to exterior fear and cowardice. His sorrow was thus so much the greater, when, after his Master had turned His gaze towards him, he clearly recognized what he had done. <br />The Risen Lord confirms Peter's precedence<br />In spite of this weakness, his position as head of the Apostles was later confirmed by Jesus, and his precedence was not less conspicuous after the Resurrection than before. The women, who were the first to find Christ's tomb empty, received from the angel a special message for Peter (Mark 16:7). To him alone of the Apostles did Christ appear on the first day after the Resurrection (Luke 24:34; 1 Corinthians 15:5). But, most important of all, when He appeared at the Lake of Genesareth, Christ renewed to Peter His special commission to feed and defend His flock, after Peter had thrice affirmed his special love for his Master (John 21:15-17). In conclusion Christ foretold the violent death Peter would have to suffer, and thus invited him to follow Him in a special manner (John 21:20-23). Thus was Peter called and trained for the Apostleship and clothed with the primacy of the Apostles, which he exercised in a most unequivocal manner after Christ's Ascension into Heaven. <br />II. ST. PETER IN JERUSALEM AND PALESTINE AFTER THE ASCENSION<br />Our information concerning the earliest Apostolic activity of St. Peter in Jerusalem, Judaea, and the districts stretching northwards as far as Syria is derived mainly from the first portion of the Acts of the Apostles, and is confirmed by parallel statements incidentally in the Epistles of St. Paul. <br />Among the crowd of Apostles and disciples who, after Christ's Ascension into Heaven from Mount Olivet, returned to Jerusalem to await the fulfilment of His promise to send the Holy Ghost, Peter is immediately conspicuous as the leader of all, and is henceforth constantly recognized as the head of the original Christian community in Jerusalem. He takes the initiative in the appointment to the Apostolic College of another witness of the life, death and resurrection of Christ to replace Judas (Acts 1:15-26). After the descent of the Holy Ghost on the feast of Pentecost, Peter standing at the head of the Apostles delivers the first public sermon to proclaim the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus, and wins a large number of Jews as converts to the Christian community (Acts 2:14-41). First of the Apostles, he worked a public miracle, when with John he went up into the temple and cured the lame man at the Beautiful Gate. To the people crowding in amazement about the two Apostles, he preaches a long sermon in the Porch of Solomon, and brings new increase to the flock of believers (Acts 3:1-4:4). <br />In the subsequent examinations of the two Apostles before the Jewish High Council, Peter defends in undismayed and impressive fashion the cause of Jesus and the obligation and liberty of the Apostles to preach the Gospel (Acts 4:5-21). When Ananias and Sapphira attempt to deceive the Apostles and the people Peter appears as judge of their action, and God executes the sentence of punishment passed by the Apostle by causing the sudden death of the two guilty parties (Acts 5:1-11). By numerous miracles God confirms the Apostolic activity of Christ's confessors, and here also there is special mention of Peter, since it is recorded that the inhabitants of Jerusalem and neighbouring towns carried their sick in their beds into the streets so that the shadow of Peter might fall on them and they might be thereby healed (Acts 5:12-16). The ever-increasing number of the faithful caused the Jewish supreme council to adopt new measures against the Apostles, but "Peter and the Apostles" answer that they "ought to obey God rather than men" (Acts 5:29 sqq.). Not only in Jerusalem itself did Peter labour in fulfilling the mission entrusted to him by his Master. He also retained connection with the other Christian communities in Palestine, and preached the Gospel both there and in the lands situated farther north. When Philip the Deacon had won a large number of believers in Samaria, Peter and John were deputed to proceed thither from Jerusalem to organize the community and to invoke the Holy Ghost to descend upon the faithful. Peter appears a second time as judge, in the case of the magician Simon, who had wished to purchase from the Apostles the power that he also could invoke the Holy Ghost (Acts 8:14-25). On their way back to Jerusalem, the two Apostles preached the joyous tidings of the Kingdom of God. Subsequently, after Paul's departure from Jerusalem and conversion before Damascus, the Christian communities in Palestine were left at peace by the Jewish council. <br />Peter now undertook an extensive missionary tour, which brought him to the maritime cities, Lydda, Joppe, and Caesarea. In Lydda he cured the palsied Eneas, in Joppe he raised Tabitha (Dorcas) from the dead; and at Caesarea, instructed by a vision which he had in Joppe, he baptized and received into the Church the first non-Jewish Christians, the centurion Cornelius and his kinsmen (Acts 9:31-10:48). On Peter's return to Jerusalem a little later, the strict Jewish Christians, who regarded the complete observance of the Jewish law as binding on all, asked him why he had entered and eaten in the house of the uncircumcised. Peter tells of his vision and defends his action, which was ratified by the Apostles and the faithful in Jerusalem (Acts 11:1-18). <br />A confirmation of the position accorded to Peter by Luke, in the Acts, is afforded by the testimony of St. Paul (Galatians 1:18-20). After his conversion and three years' residence in Arabia, Paul came to Jerusalem "to see Peter". Here the Apostle of the Gentiles clearly designates Peter as the authorized head of the Apostles and of the early Christian Church. Peter's long residence in Jerusalem and Palestine soon came to an end. Herod Agrippa I began (A.D. 42-44) a new persecution of the Church in Jerusalem; after the execution of James, the son of Zebedee, this ruler had Peter cast into prison, intending to have him also executed after the Jewish Pasch was over. Peter, however, was freed in a miraculous manner, and, proceeding to the house of the mother of John Mark, where many of the faithful were assembled for prayer, informed them of his liberation from the hands of Herod, commissioned them to communicate the fact to James and the brethren, and then left Jerusalem to go to "another place" (Acts 12:1-18). Concerning St. Peter's subsequent activity we receive no further connected information from the extant sources, although we possess short notices of certain individual episodes of his later life. <br />III. MISSIONARY JOURNEYS IN THE EAST; COUNCIL OF THE APOSTLES<br />St. Luke does not tell us whither Peter went after his liberation from the prison in Jerusalem. From incidental statements we know that he subsequently made extensive missionary tours in the East, although we are given no clue to the chronology of his journeys. It is certain that he remained for a time at Antioch; he may even have returned thither several times. The Christian community of Antioch was founded by Christianized Jews who had been driven from Jerusalem by the persecution (Acts 11:19 sqq.). Peter's residence among them is proved by the episode concerning the observance of the Jewish ceremonial law even by Christianized pagans, related by St. Paul (Galatians 2:11-21). The chief Apostles in Jerusalem — the "pillars", Peter, James, and John — had unreservedly approved St. Paul's Apostolate to the Gentiles, while they themselves intended to labour principally among the Jews. While Paul was dwelling in Antioch (the date cannot be accurately determined), St. Peter came thither and mingled freely with the non-Jewish Christians of the community, frequenting their houses and sharing their meals. But when the Christianized Jews arrived in Jerusalem, Peter, fearing lest these rigid observers of the Jewish ceremonial law should be scandalized thereat, and his influence with the Jewish Christians be imperiled, avoided thenceforth eating with the uncircumcised. <br />His conduct made a great impression on the other Jewish Christians at Antioch, so that even Barnabas, St. Paul's companion, now avoided eating with the Christianized pagans. As this action was entirely opposed to the principles and practice of Paul, and might lead to confusion among the converted pagans, this Apostle addressed a public reproach to St. Peter, because his conduct seemed to indicate a wish to compel the pagan converts to become Jews and accept circumcision and the Jewish law. The whole incident is another proof of the authoritative position of St. Peter in the early Church, since his example and conduct was regarded as decisive. But Paul, who rightly saw the inconsistency in the conduct of Peter and the Jewish Christians, did not hesitate to defend the immunity of converted pagans from the Jewish Law. Concerning Peter's subsequent attitude on this question St. Paul gives us no explicit information. But it is highly probable that Peter ratified the contention of the Apostle of the Gentiles, and thenceforth conducted himself towards the Christianized pagans as at first. As the principal opponents of his views in this connexion, Paul names and combats in all his writings only the extreme Jewish Christians coming "from James" (i.e., from Jerusalem). While the date of this occurrence, whether before or after the Council of the Apostles, cannot be determined, it probably took place after the council (see below). The later tradition, which existed as early as the end of the second century (Origen, "Hom. vi in Lucam"; Eusebius, "Hist. Eccl.", III, xxxvi), that Peter founded the Church of Antioch, indicates the fact that he laboured a long period there, and also perhaps that he dwelt there towards the end of his life and then appointed Evodrius, the first of the line of Antiochian bishops, head of the community. This latter view would best explain the tradition referring the foundation of the Church of Antioch to St. Peter. <br />It is also probable that Peter pursued his Apostolic labours in various districts of Asia Minor for it can scarcely be supposed that the entire period between his liberation from prison and the Council of the Apostles was spent uninterruptedly in one city, whether Antioch, Rome, or elsewhere. And, since he subsequently addressed the first of his Epistles to the faithful in the Provinces of Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, and Asia, one may reasonably assume that he had laboured personally at least in certain cities of these provinces, devoting himself chiefly to the Diaspora. The Epistle, however, is of a general character, and gives little indication of personal relations with the persons to whom it is addressed. The tradition related by Bishop Dionysius of Corinth (in Eusebius, "Hist. Eccl.", II, xxviii) in his letter to the Roman Church under Pope Soter (165-74), that Peter had (like Paul) dwelt in Corinth and planted the Church there, cannot be entirely rejected. Even though the tradition should receive no support from the existence of the "party of Cephas", which Paul mentions among the other divisions of the Church of Corinth (1 Corinthians 1:12; 3:22), still Peter's sojourn in Corinth (even in connection with the planting and government of the Church by Paul) is not impossible. That St. Peter undertook various Apostolic journeys (doubtless about this time, especially when he was no longer permanently residing in Jerusalem) is clearly established by the general remark of St. Paul in 1 Corinthians 9:5, concerning the "rest of the apostles, and the brethren [cousins] of the Lord, and Cephas", who were travelling around in the exercise of their Apostleship. <br />Peter returned occasionally to the original Christian Church of Jerusalem, the guidance of which was entrusted to St. James, the relative of Jesus, after the departure of the Prince of the Apostles (A.D. 42-44). The last mention of St. Peter in the Acts (15:1-29; cf. Galatians 2:1-10) occurs in the report of the Council of the Apostles on the occasion of such a passing visit. In consequence of the trouble caused by extreme Jewish Christians to Paul and Barnabas at Antioch, the Church of this city sent these two Apostles with other envoys to Jerusalem to secure a definitive decision concerning the obligations of the converted pagans (see JUDAIZERS). In addition to James, Peter and John were then (about A.D. 50-51) in Jerusalem. In the discussion and decision of this important question, Peter naturally exercised a decisive influence. When a great divergence of views had manifested itself in the assembly, Peter spoke the deciding word. Long before, in accordance with God's testimony, he had announced the Gospels to the heathen (conversion of Cornelius and his household); why, therefore, attempt to place the Jewish yoke on the necks of converted pagans? After Paul and Barnabas had related how God had wrought among the Gentiles by them, James, the chief representative of the Jewish Christians, adopted Peter's view and in agreement therewith made proposals which were expressed in an encyclical to the converted pagans. <br />The occurrences in Caesarea and Antioch and the debate at the Council of Jerusalem show clearly Peter's attitude towards the converts from paganism. Like the other eleven original Apostles, he regarded himself as called to preach the Faith in Jesus first among the Jews (Acts 10:42), so that the chosen people of God might share in the salvation in Christ, promised to them primarily and issuing from their midst. The vision at Joppe and the effusion of the Holy Ghost over the converted pagan Cornelius and his kinsmen determined Peter to admit these forthwith into the community of the faithful, without imposing on them the Jewish Law. During his Apostolic journeys outside Palestine, he recognized in practice the equality of Gentile and Jewish converts, as his original conduct at Antioch proves. His aloofness from the Gentile converts, out of consideration for the Jewish Christians from Jerusalem, was by no means an official recognition of the views of the extreme Judaizers, who were so opposed to St. Paul. This is established clearly and incontestably by his attitude at the Council of Jerusalem. Between Peter and Paul there was no dogmatic difference in their conception of salvation for Jewish and Gentile Christians. The recognition of Paul as the Apostle of the Gentiles (Galatians 2:1-9) was entirely sincere, and excludes all question of a fundamental divergence of views. St. Peter and the other Apostles recognized the converts from paganism as Christian brothers on an equal footing; Jewish and Gentile Christians formed a single Kingdom of Christ. If therefore Peter devoted the preponderating portion of his Apostolic activity to the Jews, this arose chiefly from practical considerations, and from the position of Israel as the Chosen People. Baur's hypothesis of opposing currents of "Petrinism" and "Paulinism" in the early Church is absolutely untenable, and is today entirely rejected by Protestants. <br />IV. ACTIVITY AND DEATH IN ROME; BURIAL PLACE<br />It is an indisputably established historical fact that St. Peter laboured in Rome during the last portion of his life, and there ended his earthly course by martyrdom. As to the duration of his Apostolic activity in the Roman capital, the continuity or otherwise of his residence there, the details and success of his labours, and the chronology of his arrival and death, all these questions are uncertain, and can be solved only on hypotheses more or less well-founded. The essential fact is that Peter died at Rome: this constitutes the historical foundation of the claim of the Bishops of Rome to the Apostolic Primacy of Peter. <br />St. Peter's residence and death in Rome are established beyond contention as historical facts by a series of distinct testimonies extending from the end of the first to the end of the second centuries, and issuing from several lands. <br />· That the manner, and therefore the place of his death, must have been known in widely extended Christian circles at the end of the first century is clear from the remark introduced into the Gospel of St. John concerning Christ's prophecy that Peter was bound to Him and would be led whither he would not — "And this he said, signifying by what death he should glorify God" (John 21:18-19, see above). Such a remark presupposes in the readers of the Fourth Gospel a knowledge of the death of Peter. <br />· St. Peter's First Epistle was written almost undoubtedly from Rome, since the salutation at the end reads: "The church that is in Babylon, elected together with you, saluteth you: and so doth my son Mark" (5:13). Babylon must here be identified with the Roman capital; since Babylon on the Euphrates, which lay in ruins, or New Babylon (Seleucia) on the Tigris, or the Egyptian Babylon near Memphis, or Jerusalem cannot be meant, the reference must be to Rome, the only city which is called Babylon elsewhere in ancient Christian literature (Revelation 17:5; 18:10; "Oracula Sibyl.", V, verses 143 and 159, ed. Geffcken, Leipzig, 1902, 111). <br />· From Bishop Papias of Hierapolis and Clement of Alexandria, who both appeal to the testimony of the old presbyters (i.e., the disciples of the Apostles), we learn that Mark wrote his Gospel in Rome at the request of the Roman Christians, who desired a written memorial of the doctrine preached to them by St. Peter and his disciples (Eusebius, "Hist. Eccl.", II, xv; III, xl; VI, xiv); this is confirmed by Irenaeus (Adv. haer., III, i). In connection with this information concerning the Gospel of St. Mark, Eusebius, relying perhaps on an earlier source, says that Peter described Rome figuratively as Babylon in his First Epistle. <br />· Another testimony concerning the martyrdom of Peter and Paul is supplied by Clement of Rome in his Epistle to the Corinthians (written about A.D. 95-97), wherein he says (v): "Through zeal and cunning the greatest and most righteous supports [of the Church] have suffered persecution and been warred to death. Let us place before our eyes the good Apostles — St. Peter, who in consequence of unjust zeal, suffered not one or two, but numerous miseries, and, having thus given testimony (martyresas), has entered the merited place of glory". He then mentions Paul and a number of elect, who were assembled with the others and suffered martyrdom "among us" (en hemin, i.e., among the Romans, the meaning that the expression also bears in chap. iv). He is speaking undoubtedly, as the whole passage proves, of the Neronian persecution, and thus refers the martyrdom of Peter and Paul to that epoch. <br />· In his letter written at the beginning of the second century (before 117), while being brought to Rome for martyrdom, the venerable Bishop Ignatius of Antioch endeavours by every means to restrain the Roman Christians from striving for his pardon, remarking: "I issue you no commands, like Peter and Paul: they were Apostles, while I am but a captive" (Ad. Romans 4). The meaning of this remark must be that the two Apostles laboured personally in Rome, and with Apostolic authority preached the Gospel there. <br />· Bishop Dionysius of Corinth, in his letter to the Roman Church in the time of Pope Soter (165-74), says: "You have therefore by your urgent exhortation bound close together the sowing of Peter and Paul at Rome and Corinth. For both planted the seed of the Gospel also in Corinth, and together instructed us, just as they likewise taught in the same place in Italy and at the same time suffered martyrdom" (in Eusebius, "Hist. Eccl.", II, xxviii). <br />· Irenaeus of Lyons, a native of Asia Minor and a disciple of Polycarp of Smyrna (a disciple of St. John), passed a considerable time in Rome shortly after the middle of the second century, and then proceeded to Lyons, where he became bishop in 177; he described the Roman Church as the most prominent and chief preserver of the Apostolic tradition, as "the greatest and most ancient church, known by all, founded and organized at Rome by the two most glorious Apostles, Peter and Paul" (Adv. haer., III, iii; cf. III, i). He thus makes use of the universally known and recognized fact of the Apostolic activity of Peter and Paul in Rome, to find therein a proof from tradition against the heretics. <br />· In his "Hypotyposes" (Eusebius, "Hist. Eccl.", IV, xiv), Clement of Alexandria, teacher in the catechetical school of that city from about 190, says on the strength of the tradition of the presbyters: "After Peter had announced the Word of God in Rome and preached the Gospel in the spirit of God, the multitude of hearers requested Mark, who had long accompanied Peter on all his journeys, to write down what the Apostles had preached to them" (see above). <br />· Like Irenaeus, Tertullian appeals, in his writings against heretics, to the proof afforded by the Apostolic labours of Peter and Paul in Rome of the truth of ecclesiastical tradition. In "De Praescriptione", xxxv, he says: "If thou art near Italy, thou hast Rome where authority is ever within reach. How fortunate is this Church for which the Apostles have poured out their whole teaching with their blood, where Peter has emulated the Passion of the Lord, where Paul was crowned with the death of John" (scil. the Baptist). In "Scorpiace", xv, he also speaks of Peter's crucifixion. "The budding faith Nero first made bloody in Rome. There Peter was girded by another, since he was bound to the cross". As an illustration that it was immaterial with what water baptism is administered, he states in his book ("On Baptism", ch. v) that there is "no difference between that with which John baptized in the Jordan and that with which Peter baptized in the Tiber"; and against Marcion he appeals to the testimony of the Roman Christians, "to whom Peter and Paul have bequeathed the Gospel sealed with their blood" (Adv. Marc., IV, v). <br />· The Roman, Caius, who lived in Rome in the time of Pope Zephyrinus (198-217), wrote in his "Dialogue with Proclus" (in Eusebius, "Hist. Eccl.", II, xxviii) directed against the Montanists: "But I can show the trophies of the Apostles. If you care to go to the Vatican or to the road to Ostia, thou shalt find the trophies of those who have founded this Church". By the trophies (tropaia) Eusebius understands the graves of the Apostles, but his view is opposed by modern investigators who believe that the place of execution is meant. For our purpose it is immaterial which opinion is correct, as the testimony retains its full value in either case. At any rate the place of execution and burial of both were close together; St. Peter, who was executed on the Vatican, received also his burial there. Eusebius also refers to "the inscription of the names of Peter and Paul, which have been preserved to the present day on the burial-places there" (i.e. at Rome). <br />· There thus existed in Rome an ancient epigraphic memorial commemorating the death of the Apostles. The obscure notice in the Muratorian Fragment ("Lucas optime theofile conprindit quia sub praesentia eius singula gerebantur sicuti et semote passionem petri evidenter declarat", ed. Preuschen, Tübingen, 1910, p. 29) also presupposes an ancient definite tradition concerning Peter's death in Rome. <br />· The apocryphal Acts of St. Peter and the Acts of Sts. Peter and Paul likewise belong to the series of testimonies of the death of the two Apostles in Rome. <br />In opposition to this distinct and unanimous testimony of early Christendom, some few Protestant historians have attempted in recent times to set aside the residence and death of Peter at Rome as legendary. These attempts have resulted in complete failure. It was asserted that the tradition concerning Peter's residence in Rome first originated in Ebionite circles, and formed part of the Legend of Simon the Magician, in which Paul is opposed by Peter as a false Apostle under Simon; just as this fight was transplanted to Rome, so also sprang up at an early date the legend of Peter's activity in that capital (thus in Baur, "Paulus", 2nd ed., 245 sqq., followed by Hase and especially Lipsius, "Die quellen der römischen Petrussage", Kiel, 1872). But this hypothesis is proved fundamentally untenable by the whole character and purely local importance of Ebionitism, and is directly refuted by the above genuine and entirely independent testimonies, which are at least as ancient. It has moreover been now entirely abandoned by serious Protestant historians (cf., e.g., Harnack's remarks in "Gesch. der altchristl. Literatur", II, i, 244, n. 2). A more recent attempt was made by Erbes (Zeitschr. fur Kirchengesch., 1901, pp. 1 sqq., 161 sqq.) to demonstrate that St. Peter was martyred at Jerusalem. He appeals to the apocryphal Acts of St. Peter, in which two Romans, Albinus and Agrippa, are mentioned as persecutors of the Apostles. These he identifies with the Albinus, Procurator of Judaea, and successor of Festus and Agrippa II, Prince of Galilee, and thence conciudes that Peter was condemned to death and sacrificed by this procurator at Jerusalem. The untenableness of this hypothesis becomes immediately apparent from the mere fact that our earliest definite testimony concerning Peter's death in Rome far antedates the apocryphal Acts; besides, never throughout the whole range of Christian antiquity has any city other than Rome been designated the place of martyrdom of Sts. Peter and Paul. <br />Although the fact of St. Peter's activity and death in Rome is so clearly established, we possess no precise information regarding the details of his Roman sojourn. The narratives contained in the apocryphal literature of the second century concerning the supposed strife between Peter and Simon Magus belong to the domain of legend. From the already mentioned statements regarding the origin of the Gospel of St. Mark we may conclude that Peter laboured for a long period in Rome. This conclusion is confirmed by the unanimous voice of tradition which, as early as the second half of the second century, designates the Prince of the Apostles the founder of the Roman Church. It is widely held that Peter paid a first visit to Rome after he had been miraculously liberated from the prison in Jerusalem; that, by "another place", Luke meant Rome, but omitted the name for special reasons. It is not impossible that Peter made a missionary journey to Rome about this time (after 42 A.D.), but such a journey cannot be established with certainty. At any rate, we cannot appeal in support of this theory to the chronological notices in Eusebius and Jerome, since, although these notices extend back to the chronicles of the third century, they are not old traditions, but the result of calculations on the basis of episcopal lists. Into the Roman list of bishops dating from the second century, there was introduced in the third century (as we learn from Eusebius and the "Chronograph of 354") the notice of a twenty-five years' pontificate for St. Peter, but we are unable to trace its origin. This entry consequently affords no ground for the hypothesis of a first visit by St. Peter to Rome after his liberation from prison (about 42). We can therefore admit only the possibility of such an early visit to the capital. <br />The task of determining the year of St. Peter's death is attended with similar difficulties. In the fourth century, and even in the chronicles of the third, we find two different entries. In the "Chronicle" of Eusebius the thirteenth or fourteenth year of Nero is given as that of the death of Peter and Paul (67-68); this date, accepted by Jerome, is that generally held. The year 67 is also supported by the statement, also accepted by Eusebius and Jerome, that Peter came to Rome under the Emperor Claudius (according to Jerome, in 42), and by the above-mentioned tradition of the twenty-five years' episcopate of Peter (cf. Bartolini, "Sopra l'anno 67 se fosse quello del martirio dei gloriosi Apostoli", Rome, 1868) . A different statement is furnished by the "Chronograph of 354" (ed. Duchesne, "Liber Pontificalis", I, 1 sqq.). This refers St. Peter's arrival in Rome to the year 30, and his death and that of St. Paul to 55. <br />Duchesne has shown that the dates in the "Chronograph" were inserted in a list of the popes which contains only their names and the duration of their pontificates, and then, on the chronological supposition that the year of Christ's death was 29, the year 30 was inserted as the beginning of Peter's pontificate, and his death referred to 55, on the basis of the twenty-five years' pontificate (op. cit., introd., vi sqq.). This date has however been recently defended by Kellner ("Jesus von Nazareth u. seine Apostel im Rahmen der Zeitgeschichte", Ratisbon, 1908; "Tradition geschichtl. Bearbeitung u. Legende in der Chronologie des apostol. Zeitalters", Bonn, 1909). Other historians have accepted the year 65 (e.g., Bianchini, in his edition of the "Liber Pontificalis" in P.L. CXXVII. 435 sqq.) or 66 (e.g. Foggini, "De romani b. Petri itinere et episcopatu", Florence, 1741; also Tillemont). Harnack endeavoured to establish the year 64 (i.e. the beginning of the Neronian persecution) as that of Peter's death ("Gesch. der altchristl. Lit. bis Eusebius", pt. II, "Die Chronologie", I, 240 sqq.). This date, which had been already supported by Cave, du Pin, and Wieseler, has been accepted by Duchesne (Hist. ancienne de l'eglise, I, 64). Erbes refers St. Peter's death to 22 Feb., 63, St. Paul's to 64 ("Texte u. Untersuchungen", new series, IV, i, Leipzig, 1900, "Die Todestage der Apostel Petrus u. Paulus u. ihre rom. Denkmaeler"). The date of Peter's death is thus not yet decided; the period between July, 64 (outbreak of the Neronian persecution), and the beginning of 68 (on 9 July Nero fled from Rome and committed suicide) must be left open for the date of his death. The day of his martyrdom is also unknown; 29 June, the accepted day of his feast since the fourth century, cannot be proved to be the day of his death (see below). <br />Concerning the manner of Peter's death, we possess a tradition — attested to by Tertullian at the end of the second century (see above) and by Origen (in Eusebius, "Hist. Eccl.", II, i) — that he suffered crucifixion. Origen says: "Peter was crucified at Rome with his head downwards, as he himself had desired to suffer". As the place of execution may be accepted with great probability the Neronian Gardens on the Vatican, since there, according to Tacitus, were enacted in general the gruesome scenes of the Neronian persecution; and in this district, in the vicinity of the Via Cornelia and at the foot of the Vatican Hills, the Prince of the Apostles found his burial place. Of this grave (since the word tropaion was, as already remarked, rightly understood of the tomb) Caius already speaks in the third century. For a time the remains of Peter lay with those of Paul in a vault on the Appian Way at the place ad Catacumbas, where the Church of St. Sebastian (which on its erection in the fourth century was dedicated to the two Apostles) now stands. The remains had probably been brought thither at the beginning of the Valerian persecution in 258, to protect them from the threatened desecration when the Christian burial-places were confiscated. They were later restored to their former resting-place, and Constantine the Great had a magnificent basilica erected over the grave of St. Peter at the foot of the Vatican Hill. This basilica was replaced by the present St. Peter's in the sixteenth century. The vault with the altar built above it (confessio) has been since the fourth century the most highly venerated martyr's shrine in the West. In the substructure of the altar, over the vault which contained the sarcophagus with the remains of St. Peter, a cavity was made. This was closed by a small door in front of the altar. By opening this door the pilgrim could enjoy the great privilege of kneeling directly over the sarcophagus of the Apostle. Keys of this door were given as previous souvenirs (cf. Gregory of Tours, "De gloria martyrum", I, xxviii). <br />The memory of St. Peter is also closely associated with the Catacomb of St. Priscilla on the Via Salaria. According to a tradition, current in later Christian antiquity, St. Peter here instructed the faithful and administered baptism. This tradition seems to have been based on still earlier monumental testimonies. The catacomb is situated under the garden of a villa of the ancient Christian and senatorial family, the Acilii Glabriones, and its foundation extends back to the end of the first century; and since Acilius Glabrio, consul in 91, was condemned to death under Domitian as a Christian, it is quite possible that the Christian faith of the family extended back to Apostolic times, and that the Prince of the Apostles had been given hospitable reception in their house during his residence at Rome. The relations between Peter and Pudens whose house stood on the site of the present titular church of Pudens (now Santa Pudentiana) seem to rest rather on a legend. <br />Concerning the Epistles of St. Peter, see EPISTLES OF SAINT PETER; concerning the various apocrypha bearing the name of Peter, especially the Apocalypse and the Gospel of St. Peter, see APOCRYPHA. The apocryphal sermon of Peter (kerygma), dating from the second half of the second century, was probably a collection of supposed sermons by the Apostle; several fragments are preserved by Clement of Alexandria (cf. Dobschuts, "Das Kerygma Petri kritisch untersucht" in "Texte u. Untersuchungen", XI, i, Leipzig, 1893). <br />V. FEASTS OF ST. PETER<br />As early as the fourth century a feast was celebrated in memory of Sts. Peter and Paul on the same day, although the day was not the same in the East as in Rome. The Syrian Martyrology of the end of the fourth century, which is an excerpt from a Greek catalogue of saints from Asia Minor, gives the following feasts in connexion with Christmas (25 Dec.): 26 Dec., St. Stephen; 27 Dec., Sts. James and John; 28 Dec., Sts. Peter and Paul. In St. Gregory of Nyssa's panegyric on St. Basil we are also informed that these feasts of the Apostles and St. Stephen follow immediately after Christmas. The Armenians celebrated the feast also on 27 Dec.; the Nestorians on the second Friday after the Epiphany. It is evident that 28 (27) Dec. was (like 26 Dec. for St. Stephen) arbitrarily selected, no tradition concerning the date of the saints' death being forthcoming. The chief feast of Sts. Peter and Paul was kept in Rome on 29 June as early as the third or fourth century. The list of feasts of the martyrs in the Chronograph of Philocalus appends this notice to the date — "III. Kal. Jul. Petri in Catacumbas et Pauli Ostiense Tusco et Basso Cose." (=the year 258) . The "Martyrologium Hieronyminanum" has, in the Berne manuscript, the following notice for 29 June: "Romae via Aurelia natale sanctorum Apostolorum Petri et Pauli, Petri in Vaticano, Pauli in via Ostiensi, utrumque in catacumbas, passi sub Nerone, Basso et Tusco consulibus" (ed. de Rossi-Duchesne, 84). <br />The date 258 in the notices shows that from this year the memory of the two Apostles was celebrated on 29 June in the Via Appia ad Catacumbas (near San Sebastiano fuori le mura), because on this date the remains of the Apostles were translated thither (see above). Later, perhaps on the building of the church over the graves on the Vatican and in the Via Ostiensis, the remains were restored to their former resting-place: Peter's to the Vatican Basilica and Paul's to the church on the Via Ostiensis. In the place Ad Catacumbas a church was also built as early as the fourth century in honour of the two Apostles. From 258 their principal feast was kept on 29 June, on which date solemn Divine Service was held in the above-mentioned three churches from ancient times (Duchesne, "Origines du culte chretien", 5th ed., Paris, 1909, 271 sqq., 283 sqq.; Urbain, "Ein Martyrologium der christl. Gemeinde zu Rom an Anfang des 5. Jahrh.", Leipzig, 1901, 169 sqq.; Kellner, "Heortologie", 3rd ed., Freiburg, 1911, 210 sqq.). Legend sought to explain the temporary occupation by the Apostles of the grave Ad Catacumbas by supposing that, shortly after their death, the Oriental Christians wished to steal their bodies and bring them to the East. This whole story is evidently a product of popular legend. (Concerning the Feast of the Chair of Peter, see CHAIR OF PETER.) <br />A third Roman feast of the Apostles takes place on 1 August: the feast of St. Peter's Chains. This feast was originally the dedication feast of the church of the Apostle, erected on the Esquiline Hill in the fourth century. A titular priest of the church, Philippus, was papal legate at the Council of Ephesus in 431. The church was rebuilt by Sixtus III (432-40) at the expense of the Byzantine imperial family. Either the solemn consecration took place on 1 August, or this was the day of dedication of the earlier church. Perhaps this day was selected to replace the heathen festivities which took place on 1 August. In this church, which is still standing (S. Pietro in Vincoli), were probably preserved from the fourth century St. Peter's chains, which were greatly venerated, small filings from the chains being regarded as precious relics. The church thus early received the name in Vinculis, and the feast of 1 August became the feast of St. Peter's Chains (Duchesne, op. cit., 286 sqq.; Kellner, loc. cit., 216 sqq.). The memory of both Peter and Paul was later associated also with two places of ancient Rome: the Via Sacra, outside the Forum, where the magician Simon was said to have been hurled down at the prayer of Peter and the prison Tullianum, or Carcer Mamertinus, where the Apostles were supposed to have been kept until their execution. At both these places, also, shrines of the Apostles were erected, and that of the Mamertine Prison still remains in almost its original form from the early Roman time. These local commemorations of the Apostles are based on legends, and no special celebrations are held in the two churches. It is, however, not impossible that Peter and Paul were actually confined in the chief prison in Rome at the fort of the Capitol, of which the present Carcer Mamertinus is a remnant. <br />VI. REPRESENTATIONS OF ST. PETER<br />The oldest extant is the bronze medallion with the heads of the Apostles; this dates from the end of the second or the beginning of the third century, and is preserved in the Christian Museum of the Vatican Library. Peter has a strong, roundish head, prominent jaw-bones, a receding forehead, thick, curly hair and beard. (See illustration in CATACOMBS.) The features are so individual that it partakes of the nature of a portrait. This type is also found in two representations of St. Peter in a chamber of the Catacomb of Peter and Marcellinus, dating from the second half of the third century (Wilpert, "Die Malerein der Katakomben Rom", plates 94 and 96). In the paintings of the catacombs Sts. Peter and Paul frequently appear as interceders and advocates for the dead in the representations of the Last Judgment (Wilpert, 390 sqq.), and as introducing an Orante (a praying figure representing the dead) into Paradise. <br />In the numerous representations of Christ in the midst of His Apostles, which occur in the paintings of the catacombs and carved on sarcophagi, Peter and Paul always occupy the places of honour on the right and left of the Saviour. In the mosaics of the Roman basilicas, dating from the fourth to the ninth centuries, Christ appears as the central figure, with Sts. Peter and Paul on His right and left, and besides these the saints especially venerated in the particular church. On sarcophagi and other memorials appear scenes from the life of St. Peter: his walking on Lake Genesareth, when Christ summoned him from the boat; the prophecy of his denial; the washing of his feet; the raising of Tabitha from the dead; the capture of Peter and the conducting of him to the place of execution. On two gilt glasses he is represented as Moses drawing water from the rock with his staff; the name Peter under the scene shows that he is regarded as the guide of the people of God in the New Testament. <br />Particularly frequent in the period between the fourth and sixth centuries is the scene of the delivery of the Law to Peter, which occurs on various kinds of monuments. Christ hands St. Peter a folded or open scroll, on which is often the inscription Lex Domini (Law of the Lord) or Dominus legem dat (The Lord gives the law). In the mausoleum of Constantina at Rome (S. Costanza, in the Via Nomentana) this scene is given as a pendant to the delivery of the Law to Moses. In representations on fifth-century sarcophagi the Lord presents to Peter (instead of the scroll) the keys. In carvings of the fourth century Peter often bears a staff in his hand (after the fifth century, a cross with a long shaft, carried by the Apostle on his shoulder), as a kind of sceptre indicative of Peter's office. From the end of the sixth century this is replaced by the keys (usually two, but sometimes three), which henceforth became the attribute of Peter. Even the renowned and greatly venerated bronze statue in St. Peter's possesses them; this, the best-known representation of the Apostle, dates from the last period of Christian antiquity (Grisar, "Analecta romana", I, Rome, 1899, 627 sqq.).Duke Eversmeyerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12979421184987312497noreply@blogger.com0